Science Study Guide - Midterm PDF

Science - Study Guide - Midterm: Forces and Energy Measurement in Science Definition: The process of obtaining the magnitude of a quantity relative to an agreed standard. Key Points: o Units of measurement (e.g., meters, kilograms, seconds) o Precision...

Science - Study Guide - Midterm: Forces and Energy Measurement in Science Definition: The process of obtaining the magnitude of a quantity relative to an agreed standard. Key Points: o Units of measurement (e.g., meters, kilograms, seconds) o Precision (how close repeated measurements are to each other) o Accuracy (how close a measurement is to the true value) States and Properties of Matter Definition: The distinct forms that different phases of matter take on. Key Points: o Solids (definite shape and volume) o Liquids (definite volume but no definite shape) o Gases (no definite shape or volume) Kinetic Theory Definition: A theory explaining the states of matter based on the concept that the particles (atoms, molecules) are always in motion. Key Points: o Molecular motion increases with temperature o Energy distribution among particles Density Definition: A measure of mass per unit of volume. Formula: Density = Mass / Volume Example: Calculating the density of a substance using given mass and volume. Forces and Effects of Forces Definition: A force is a push or pull acting upon an object as a result of its interaction with another object. Key Points: o Types of forces (e.g., friction, gravity, normal force) o Effects (e.g., change in motion, deformation) Motion Definition: A change in position of an object over time. Key Points: o Speed (distance traveled per unit of time) o Newton’s laws of motion Pressure Definition: The force exerted per unit area. Formula: Pressure = Force / Area Key Points: o Applications (e.g., atmospheric pressure, pressure in fluids) Work and Power Work: The product of the force applied and the distance over which it is applied. o Formula: Work = Force × Distance Power: The rate at which work is done. o Formula: Power = Work / Time Gravity and Gravitational Fields Definition: A force that attracts any two objects with mass. Key Points: o Law of Universal Gravitation o Gravitational field strength Energy Sources and Resources Key Points: o Renewable (e.g., solar, wind) o Non-renewable (e.g., coal, oil) o Environmental impact Energy Transfer and Transformation Key Points: o Conservation of energy o Different forms of energy (e.g., kinetic, potential) Electromagnetism Magnetism Definition: The force exerted by magnets when they attract or repel each other. Key Points: o Magnetic fields o Properties of magnets Electric and Magnetic Fields Definition: Regions around a charge or a magnet where its influence is felt. Key Points: o Interaction between electric charges and magnetic fields Static Electricity Definition: The buildup of electric charge on the surface of objects. Key Points: o Causes (e.g., friction) o Discharge (e.g., lightning) Electromagnetic Forces and Induction Electromagnetic Forces: The forces associated with electric and magnetic fields.  Induction: The process by which a conductor moving through a magnetic field induces a current. AC and DC AC (Alternating Current): Current that changes direction periodically. DC (Direct Current): Current that flows in one direction only. Current, Voltage, Power Current: The flow of electric charge. Voltage: The electric potential difference between two points. Power: The rate at which electrical energy is transferred by an electric circuit. Generation and Transmission of Electricity Key Points: o Power stations o Transmission lines Electric Circuits Definition: A closed loop that allows current to flow from a voltage source. Components: Resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc. Astrophysics The Solar System Definition: The collection of the sun and all the celestial bodies that are bound by its gravity. Key Points: o Planets, moons, asteroids, comets Planets and Satellites Definition: Planets are large celestial bodies orbiting a star; satellites are objects that orbit planets. Key Points:  o Characteristics and movements The Big Bang Theory Definition: The leading explanation about how the universe began. Key Points: o Evidence (e.g., cosmic microwave background radiation, redshift of galaxies) Heat, Light, and Sound Thermal Physics Definition: The study of heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work. Key Points: o Heat transfer methods Heat Transfer Methods: Conduction, convection, radiation Key Points: o Mechanisms of each method Condensation and Evaporation Condensation: The process by which a gas turns into a liquid. Evaporation: The process by which a liquid turns into a gas. Key Points: o Phase changes and their effects Waves Longitudinal and Transverse Waves Longitudinal Waves: Waves where the particle motion is parallel to the wave direction (e.g., sound waves). Transverse Waves: Waves where the particle motion is perpendicular to the wave direction (e.g., light waves). Sound Waves Definition: Waves of pressure that travel through a medium (e.g., air). Key Points: o Properties (e.g., frequency, wavelength) Wave Phenomena Reflection: The bouncing back of waves when they hit a barrier. Refraction: The bending of waves as they pass from one medium to another. Diffraction: The spreading out of waves when they pass through a gap or around obstacles. Wave Equation Formula: v = fλ (where v is wave speed, f is frequency, λ is wavelength) Key Points: o Relationship between wave speed, frequency, and wavelength Electromagnetic Spectrum Definition: The range of all types of electromagnetic radiation. Key Points: o Different types of waves (e.g., radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays) Atomic Physics Atomic Structure Definition: The structure of an atom, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Key Points: o Nucleus and electron cloud o Charges and masses Radioactivity  Definition: The spontaneous emission of particles or radiation from unstable atomic nuclei. Key Points: o Types of radiation (alpha, beta, gamma) o Half-life Uses and Dangers Applications: Medical imaging, cancer treatment, power generation Risks: Radiation exposure, contamination