Earth And Space Science Reviewer 9 PDF

REVIEWER IN EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE 9 Content A: Plate Tectonics and Plate Boundaries Plate Tectonics Theory – proposes that the Earth’s Lithosphere is made up of plates Evidence Supporting the Plate Tectonics Theory: 1. Distribution of Fossils: fossils of the same plants/animals found...

REVIEWER IN EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE 9 Content A: Plate Tectonics and Plate Boundaries Plate Tectonics Theory – proposes that the Earth’s Lithosphere is made up of plates Evidence Supporting the Plate Tectonics Theory: 1. Distribution of Fossils: fossils of the same plants/animals found at separate sites 2. Earthquake Origins and Volcanoes: their locations are not random, resulting in Plate Boundaries 3. Geologic Features: geological activities happen along the plate boundaries 4. Spreading Seafloor: molten material within the Earth pushes its way up, causing the plates to move away from each other Types of Plate Boundaries Convergent Divergent Transform two plates move toward two plates move away from two plates slide past each each other each other other destructive constructive conservative Continental-Continental: neither of the plates sinks Continental-Oceanic and - - Oceanic-Oceanic: older and denser oceanic plate sinks Content B: Volcanoes 1. Types of Volcanoes (structure): Cinder Cone – built by piles of lava, not ash (e.g., Taal) Composite/Stratovolcano – built by alternating layers of lava and ash (e.g., Mayon) Shield – built by outpourings of lava traveling great distances (e.g., Mauna Kea) 2. Types of Volcanoes (activity): Active – erupting within the last 10,000 years Potentially-Active – morphologically young-looking without eruption records Inactive – have not been erupting for the previous 10,000 years/no signs of volcanic activity  Dormant* – have not been erupting for a long time, but may erupt again/may still show signs of volcanic activity 3. Volcanic Eruption: Magma typically remains under the Earth’s surface due to Lithostatic Pressure, Rock Strength, and Magmastatic Pressure; however, an increase in Magmastatic Pressure may trigger a volcanic eruption. What determines the nature of eruption? Magma’s Temperature & viscosity (inversely proportional), Magma’s Silica content & viscosity (directly proportional), Amount of Dissolved Gasses lowers viscosity 4. Types of Volcanic Eruptions: Phreatic – hot rocks come into contact with surface water Phreatomagmatic – magma comes into contact with water Strombolian – driven by the bursting of gas bubbles within the magma Vulcanian – similar to Strombolian, but more explosive Plinian – eruptive columns reaching 2-45 kilometers 5. Volcanic Hazards: Lava Flow – a river of incandescent molten rock or lava moving downslope Tephra Fall – fragmented volcanic particles forming blankets of ashes Pyroclastic Density Currents – most lethal; mixtures of volcanic particles Lateral Blast – laterally-directed thrusts of hot gas and ash with impacts similar to PDCs 6. Energy from Volcanoes: Hot Water → Steam → Turbine → Generator → Electricity Hot Water is pumped underground through a well under high pressure. When the water reaches the surface, the pressure drops, causing the water to turn into Steam. The Steam spins a Turbine connected to a Generator that produces Electricity. Content C: Climate 1. Factors Affecting Climate: Latitude – areas near the equator receive most of the Sun’s rays = tropical climate Altitude – higher altitude, lower temperature Distance from Sea – water regulates temperature as it absorbs and releases heat slower than soil Topography – mountains block the winds, which is why areas on the Windward Side (the area where the wind blows) experience more precipitation compared to areas on the Leeward Side (the other side of the mountain) Ocean Currents – warm ocean currents carry warm water, resulting in a warm climate; cold ocean currents carry cold water, resulting in a cold climate 2. Global Climate Phenomena: Global Warming – increase in the Earth’s overall average temperature El Niño – abnormal and lengthy warming in the Eastern Pacific Ocean due to a decrease in Air Pressure La Niña – abnormal and lengthy cooling in the Eastern Pacific Ocean due to an increase in Air Pressure Climate Change – long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns Key Indicators of Global Climate Change* a. Land and Ocean Temperature Increase b. Rising Sea Levels c. Melting of ice caps and glaciers d. Severe and Frequent Weather Disturbances 3. Practical Ways to Mitigate the Impacts of Climate Change: - Paint the world Green. - Reduce, Reuse, Repair, Recycle - Save energy at home. - Eat more vegetables.  - Change your home’s energy source. - Throw away less food. - Walk, Bike, or Public Transport - Clean up your environment. - Switch to an electric vehicle. - Speak up! Content D: Stars and Constellations Stars are massive balls of gas (Hydrogen and Helium) that emit heat and light. Characteristics of Stars: 1. Color and Temperature – a star’s color depends on its surface temperature 2. Apparent Brightness – measures how bright a star appears from the Earth 3. Absolute Brightness – measures how bright a star would appear if it were located exactly ten parsecs (32.60 light-years) away from the Earth Arrangement of Stars: 1. Constellation – a group of stars that appear to form a pattern of animals or objects 2. Asterism – a more recognizable pattern of stars that can be a part of one or multiple constellations Movement of Stars: 1. Earth’s Rotation – causes the stars to appear to move 2. Earth’s Revolution – causes observers to see different constellations at different times of the year 3. Circumpolar Constellations – constellations near the celestial poles 4. Zodiac Constellations – constellations falling along the ecliptic Beliefs and Practices about Constellations: 1. Astrology – pseudoscience; a practice where people predicted human and Earthly events by studying the arrangements of celestial objects 2. Polaris – neither a constellation nor an asterism, but helped sailors navigate and travel across the oceans 3. Pleiades – neither a constellation nor an asterism, but helped in sea navigation; has an Indigenous name of Moroporo 4. Orion – winter season is coming when it becomes visible 5. Summer Triangle – summer season is coming when it becomes visible 6. Balatik – used by tribal hunters to foretell the coming of the planting period Content E: Galaxy 1. Compositions of Galaxy: Hydrogen, Helium, Oxygen, and Carbon 2. Components of Galaxy: Disk – the flat, circular region of a galaxy extending out from the central bulge Bulge – a large, squashed sphere surrounding the galaxy’s center 3. Types of Galaxies: