Science Exam Study Sheet - Chemistry Overview PDF

Science exam study sheet: CHEMISTRY OVERVIEW Chemical and Physical Changes & Properties Examples of Physical Changes ​ 1.​ Cutting paper ​ 2.​ Melting ice ​ 3.​ Boiling water ​ 4.​ Dissolving sugar in water ​ 5.​ Bending a wire Chemical...

Science exam study sheet: CHEMISTRY OVERVIEW Chemical and Physical Changes & Properties Examples of Physical Changes ​ 1.​ Cutting paper ​ 2.​ Melting ice ​ 3.​ Boiling water ​ 4.​ Dissolving sugar in water ​ 5.​ Bending a wire Chemical Properties of Matter ​ ​ Chemical Properties: Describe how a substance interacts with other substances. ​ ​ These properties are observed during chemical reactions. ​ ​ Understanding chemical properties helps predict substance behavior. Examples: ​ Flammability ​ Reactivity with water ​ Ability to rust Common Chemical Properties: 1.​ Reactivity Common Physical Properties 1.​ Colour: The visual perception of different wavelengths of light reflected by an object. 2.​ Texture: The feel or appearance of a surface (e.g., rough, smooth, bumpy). 3.​ Hardness: The resistance of a material to scratching or indentation (Mohs scale 1–10). 4.​ Malleability: The ability of a material to be hammered or pressed into thin sheets without breaking. 5.​ Ductility: The ability of a material to be stretched into wire without breaking. 6.​ Conductivity: The ability to transmit heat (thermal) or electricity.  7.​ Melting and Boiling Points: Temperatures at which a substance changes from solid to liquid (melting) or liquid to gas (boiling). 8.​ Solubility: The ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent. 9.​ Optical Clarity: The ability to allow light to pass through. Physical Changes ​ ​ Definition: A change that alters the form or appearance of a substance without creating a new substance. Chemistry Overview Chemical and Physical Changes and Properties ​ 1.​ Physical Properties: ​ Observable characteristics of matter. ​ Can be measured or observed without changing the substance. ​ Examples: Colour, shape, size, texture, odor, melting point. ​ 2.​ Qualitative vs. Quantitative Properties ​ Qualitative: Descriptive, non-numerical observations. Examples: Colour, odor, texture, luster. ​ Quantitative: Measurable, numerical observations. Examples: Mass, volume, density, melting point. The Periodic Table o How it is organized ▪ Metals, non-metals, metalloids Metals(e.g., iron, copper, gold) ​ Located on the left and middle blocks ​ Elements to the left on the “staircase” ​ Characteristics ​ Solids at room temperature ​ Display metallic lustre ​ Conducts heat and electricity ​ Easy to shpate(Malleable/ductile) Example -shiny and silvery ​ -not malleable ​ ​ ​ -a semiconductor​ ​ Metalloids(e.g., silicon, boron) ​ Located on the zig-zag line ​ Elements on the “staircase” ​ ​ Characteristics Have properties of both metal and nonmetals. Example:Silicon-Si ​ Shiny and silvery ​ Not malleable ​ A semiconductor ​ Non-metal(e.g.,oxygen, Chlorine, carbon) ​ Mostly gases and dull powdery solids ​ Poor conductors of heat/ electricity ​ ​ ​ Exception: Carbon ​ Solids not ductile or malleable (dull and brittle) ​ ▪ Properties of chemical families ​ A chemical family is a group of elements with similar chemical properties ​ There are 5 main chemical families -​ 1 - alkali metals -​ 2 - alkaline earth metals -​ 17 - Halogens -​ 18 - Noble gases -​ Hydrogen ​ Group 1 - Alkali Metals In the 1st of the table ​ Characteristics -​ Only 1 electron in their outer electron shell -​ Are highly reactive(esp. With water) -​ They are all shiny, silver metals -​ Tend to form compounds - soluble in water -​ Relatively low densities and float on water ​ EXAMPLES: Sodium (Na) - found in salt ​ ​ ​ Potassium (K) - in foods such as bananas and oranges ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Group 2 - alkaline earth metals In the 2nd column of the table  ​ Characteristics -​ Have 2 electrons in their outer electron shell -​ Are highly reactive -​ They are also shiny, silver metal -​ Tend to form compounds - insoluble in water ​ EXAMPLE: Calcium (Ca) - Helps build strong bones and teeth ​ ​ Strontium (Sr) - Builds a strong shell in coral ​ Group 17 - The halogens In the 2sn last column of the table ​ Characteristics: -​ Have 7 electrons in their outer electron shell -​ They can be poisonous in large amounts -​ React readily with alkali metal ​ ​ ​ ​ EXAMPLE: Helium (He) - Used in hot air balloons ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Neon (Ne) - Used in neon signs ​ Group one Hydrogen Hydrogen is a unique element ​ Characteristics: -​ It has only 1 electron and only 1 electron shell(like the alkali metals - in 1st column) -​ It is not an alkali metal - hydrogen is a gas -​ A colour less, odorless, tasteless, and highly flammable gas - so it has nothing else in common with the other alkali metals ​ ​ ​ ▪ Periods vs groups Period: ​ A horizontal row on the table ​ Numbered 1-7 ​ Atoms in the same period have the same number of electron shells Group: ​ A vertical column on the periodic table ​ They are numbered left to right 1-18 ​ The atoms in the same group have and equal number of electrons in their outer electron shell  ​ Group elements tend to have similar chemical properties ​ Having only 1 electron in the outer electron shell makes group 1 elements highly reactive so the higher number group the less reactive. ▪ Valence electrons o Atoms vs Ions4, ▪ Draw B-R diagram for neutral atom or ion (gain or loss of electrons) o Atomic Theories ▪ Experiments ▪ Scientists ▪ Models o Standard Atomic Notation ▪ Atomic number ▪ Atomic mass ▪ Proton, Electron and Neutron # ▪ Bohr – Rutherford Diagram (drawing) o Ionic & Covalent Compounds ▪ Naming & Formula Writing ▪ Types of elements involved in each type of bonding ECOLOGY (BIOLOGY) OVERVIEW Biotic vs abiotic factors Biotic: A living organism within an ecosystem. Examples of biotic factors : fish, bird, deer, plant, tree Abiotic: a non living organism within an ecosystem. Examples Of abiotic factors : water, sand, rocks, soil, clouds, temperature Food Web o Trophic levels describes the level or position of an organism in a food chain o Producer vs consumer Producer: any living thing that gets the energy it needs by making its own food Consumer: any living thing that gets the energy it needs by eating producers or other living things o Herbivore, omnivore, carnivore, decomposer There are three types of consumers: Herbivores: eats plants Carnivores: eats animals Omnivores: eats plants and animals Decomposer: breakdown dead/decaying organisms and releases nutrients back into the ecosystem o How a change in the web affects other species A change can have a ripple effect on other species. Since ecosystems and the living organisms in the ecosystem rely on each other if something is changed and affects one living organism it can change how another organism lives. ▪ Mutualism, Competition, Parasitism, Commensalism, Predation 3 TYPES OF INTERACTIONS: 1. PREDATION Definition: the interaction between predators and prey. Predators get food by eating the prey Prey eaten allows less competition among the prey population. Example:  2. COMPETITION Definition: Living organisms fight over shared resources such as shelter, light, water, space and food. Each member of a population has the same needs for the same resources. Individuals of the same species can compete with each other for resources Organisms of two different species can compete with each other for resources 3. SYMBIOSIS Definition: a close and prolonged association between two organisms of a different species. (3 types) a) Mutualism – an interaction between two species in which both benefits. b) parasitism – living things that live on or inside other living things and use their tissue for food. Most parasites weaken their hosts but barely kill them. ▪ Host: the living thing the parasite feeds on. c) commensalism - an interaction between two species in which one species benefits and the other species is not affected (does not benefit nor is harmed in the interaction). Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration o Define each process and how they are related Photosynthesis: converts light into chemical energy stored in glucose (food for plants and other organisms) occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells. Needs water and carbon dioxide and produces glucose and oxygen Cellular Respiration: Breaks down glucose to release stored energy for cells. Occurs in mitochondria. Needs glucose and oxygen and produces carbon dioxide, water and energy Connection: The outputs of one process are the inputs of the other, forming a cycle of energy. Human Activities and their impact on ecosystems o Pollution (air, water, land) Causes health issues in organisms, damages ecosystems, and contaminates resources. o Plastics Non-biodegradable materials that pollute land and oceans, harming wildlife. o Habitat Loss Kills animals, loses their habitat, reduces biodiversity, and contributes to increased CO2 in the atmosphere. Carrying capacity Maximum number of living organisms a space can hold o Limiting factor ​ Factors that limit the size of the population ​ Examples: parasites, predators, living space, shelter, water, weather, prey, competition. o Tolerance range indicates the critical maximum and minimum limits of that abiotic variable that the organism can withstand. Sustainability for an ecosystem to have the ability to maintain natural ecological conditions or processes without interruption, weakening, or loss of value indefinitely ELECTRICITY (PHYSICS) OVERVIEW Electric charge: A form of charge (positive or negative) that exerts an electric force Electric force: Force of attraction and repulsion between charged objects Where do charges come from? Negative charges comes from the electron and can move from object to object Positive charges come from the proton and are one type of electrical charges that are left behind when negative charges are transferred from a material Electrostatic Series a list of materials (in order of their electron affinity) that helps determine what happens when two objects are brought together Substances HIGHER on the list LOSE ELECTRONS to substances lower on the list.  Charging by Friction, Conduction & Induction Friction: neutral object + neutral object This type of charging occurs when two different neutral materials are rubbed together or come in contact. Electrons are transferred from one object to another. Conduction: charged object + neutral object When two objects come into contact, electrons move from one object to the other. Whenever we bring a charged object and touch it to a neutral object, the neutral objects end up with the same charge as the charged object. Induction: Charging by induction occurs when we bring a charged object near a neutral conductor. And they do not touch Grounding Grounding: connecting an object to a large body, like Earth, that can remove an electric charge from the object. A grounding wire is simply a conductor that connects the object to the ground. Think of the earth as a huge reservoir of charge…it can both gain or donate electrons as needed.  Depending on what the situation is, either electrons will travel up the grounding wire to the object being charged, or traveling down to the ground. Law of Electric Charge 1.​ Opposite charges attract each other 2.​ Like charges repel each other Applications of Electrostatics I have no idea what this is Types of Electrical Generation o solar, wind, hydroelectric, nuclear, biomass, geothermal, tidal etc Solar: Solar panels capture sunlight and convert it into direct current electricity Wind: Wind turbines have blades connected to a rotor which is linked to a generator. As wind blows, it spins the blades, turning the rotor and generating electricity through the generator. Hydro: hydroelectric plants use flowing water to turn turbines. The movement of water spins the turbine which drives a generator to produce electricity. Nuclear power: Nuclear reactors use the heat generated from nuclear fission to produce steam. The steam drives turbines connected to generators producing electricity. Biomass: Biomas (organic material like wood, agricultural waste) is burned to produce heat, the heat is used to produce steam which drives a turbine connected to a generator. Geothermal: Geothermal plants use heat from the earth’s interior to produce steam. Steam from underground reservoirs is used directly to turn turbines, or hot water is brought to the surface and converted into steam. The turbines drive generators to produce electricity Units for measuring components of circuits o (voltage (V)/volts(V), current (I)/amps (A), resistance (R)/ohms(Ω)) ​ 1.​ Voltage (V): Measured in volts (V), it represents the potential difference or electric pressure that drives current through a circuit. ​ 2.​ Current (I): Measured in amps (A), it is the flow of electric charge in a circuit. ​ 3.​ Resistance (R): Measured in ohms (Ω), it is the opposition to the flow of current in a circuit. Drawing Circuit Diagrams ​ 1.​ Series vs Parallel: ​ ​ In series circuits, components are connected one after another, forming a single path for the current. ​ ​ In parallel circuits, components are connected across common points, providing multiple paths for the current. Characteristics of Circuits ​ 2.​ Schematic Symbols: Common symbols include: ​ ​ Battery: —| |— ​ ​ Resistor: —//— ​ ​ Switch: —o / o— ​ ​ Bulb: ⭕ or a circle with a cross inside ​ ​ Wire: ——— ​ 3.​ Measuring Devices: ​ ​ Voltmeter: Measures voltage; connected in parallel. ​ ​ Ammeter: Measures current; connected in series. Characteristics of Circuits ​ 1.​ Series vs Parallel: ​ How bulbs are connected: ​ ​ Series: Bulbs are connected one after the other. ​ ​ Parallel: Bulbs are connected across multiple paths. ​ What happens if more bulbs are added: ​ ​ Series: Total resistance increases, so bulbs dim. ​ ​ Parallel: Total resistance decreases, so brightness remains relatively unchanged. ​ What happens if a bulb does not work: ​ ​ Series: The circuit breaks, and all bulbs go out. ​ ​ Parallel: The other bulbs remain lit as current still flows through other paths. Kirchhoff’s Laws ​ 1.​ Current Law (KCL): The total current entering a junction equals the total current leaving the junction. (Conservation of charge) ​ 2.​ Potential Difference Law (KVL): The sum of potential differences (voltage) around any closed loop is zero. (Conservation of energy) Ohm’s Law The relationship between voltage, current, and resistance: Where: ​ ​ = Voltage (volts) ​ ​ = Current (amps) ​ ​ = Resistance (ohms) Factors Affecting Resistance ​ 1.​ Temperature: Resistance typically increases as temperature increases for most conductors. ​ 2.​ Length: Resistance increases with the length of the conductor. ​ 3.​ Type of Material (Resistivity): Materials with high resistivity (e.g., rubber) have higher resistance than those with low resistivity (e.g., copper). ​ 4.​ Cross-sectional Diameter/Area (Width): Resistance decreases as the cross-sectional area of the conductor increases. Cost to Operate The cost of operating an electrical device can be calculated using: Where: ​ ​ Power is in kilowatts (1 kW = 1000 W). ​ ​ Time is in hours of operation. ​ ​ Rate is the cost per kilowatt-hour (kWh), provided by your utility provider ASTRONOMY OVERVIEW Measuring Distances in Space & Conversion Calculations o Astronomical Units (AU) Astronomers use astronomical units (Au) to measure distances within the solar system One astronomical unit equals 1.5 x 10km to the power 8 or 150 million km o Light Year (ly) Astronomers use light years (ly) to measure the distances between celestial objects outside of the solar system The distance of one light year is 9.4607 x 10 km to the power of 12 Or 9.46 trillion kilometers How Stars Form Stars are born within clouds of dust, which in combination with gases, collapse under its own gravitational attraction resulting in the materials to heat up. o Process of nuclear fusion All of the sun's energy is generated in the core through nuclear fusion. During nuclear fusion, hydrogen atoms collide violently to form helium. -​ Releases an incredible amount of energy -​ Released through the photosphere eventually reaches earth -​ The ozone layer of the atmosphere some absorbs ultraviolet radiation -​ Parts of the solar system o Planets Terrestrial Planets Mercury Is the smallest terrestrial planet. ○ It is about one-third the size of Earth.  ○ Made mostly of iron and nickel. ○ water may exist on Mercury Too close to the Sun to be a home to life Venus is roughly the same size as Earth ○ Atmosphere consists mostly of carbon monoxide ○ hottest planet in our Solar System ○ Scientists believe that Venus may have active volcanoes ○ Like Mercury, Venus has no known moons Earth is the largest terrestrial planet and is the only planet with an abundance of water ○ Atmosphere contains water vapour ○ Temperatures are suitable for vapour ○ Earth has regular seasons because it tilts on its axis as it moves around the Sun. Mars is a red planet with a center- filled surface ○ two moons ○ Has a year that is 687 days long ○ No known life on Mars ○ Evidence of water, which is essential to support living things Gas Giants Jupiter is the largest planet in our Solar System ○ 318 Earths could fit inside ○ Can sometimes be seen from Earth without a telescope ○ Made mostly from hydrogen and helium ○ Jupiter has at least 67 moons Saturn is surrounded by a series of large rings ○ The rings are made from a combination of ice, dust and rock. ○ Saturn has 62 known moons ○ It takes almost 30 Earth years for Saturn to do a full revolution around the Sun. Uranus is made from ice, gases and liquid metal ○ The temperature in Uranus is -197 degrees Celsius. ○ Although Uranus is a gas giant, it has a solidcore. ○ Surface features violent storms with winds that can exceed 160 mph ○ Uranus has 27 known moons.  Neptune is the furthest planet from the Sun in our Solar System ○ 4.5 billion km from the Sun ○ Neptune is a bright blue colour that is caused by methane gas ○ Neptune has 14 moons. o Meteor/Meteorite/Comet/Asteroid ​ An asteroid is a small, rocky object that orbits the Sun. Most asteroids in our solar system are found in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. A comet is a ball of frozen gas and dust that orbits around the Sun. Short-period comets take less than 200 years to orbit the Sun. The comet with the longest known orbit takes over 250 000 years to orbit the Sun. A meteor (or meteoroid) is a small piece of an asteroid or a comet that breaks apart and enters the Earth’s atmosphere As the meteor falls toward the Earth, the drag resistance causes it to get extremely hot. A meteorite is a solid piece of debris from an object, such as a comet, asteroid, or meteoroid, that originates in outer space and survives its passage through the atmosphere to reach the surface of a planet or moon. Parts of the Sun o Label o Key terms  The Core is the central area of the sun Surrounding the core is the Radiative zone, which transports the Sun’s energy through radiation. the Convective zone where light energy (photons) is created *The Sun’s atmosphere contains four parts: The Photosphere The Chromosphere The Transitional zone The Corona The Photosphere is about where the Sun’s atmosphere begins Approximately 6,700 degrees Celsius First layer of the Sun that is visible from Earth Appears white, but dark blotches called sunspots occasionally appear The Chromosphere is located above the photosphere. Appears to be red and is approximately four times hotter than the photosphere Has violent eruptions of solar flares The Transitional zone is between the chromosphere and the corona, the highest layer of the Sun called the corona. This zone separates the cooler chromosphere from the very hot corona The Corona is an illuminated region following the transitional zone Silvery in colour Only visible with a special type of telescope called a coronagraph Significantly hotter than the surface of the Sun Average temperature of 1 to 2 million degrees Celsius The Big Bang Theory The universe started as a singularity - a point of infinite density and temperature. It rapidly expanded and cooled, allowing the formation of subatomic particles, then atoms. Over billions of years, these particles formed stars, galaxies, and eventually, the universe as we know it today. Satellites Satellites are devices launched into space that orbit around Earth or other celestial bodies. They come in various sizes, from small cube satellites (about 10 cm on each side) to large space stations. Types of Satellites and Their Uses 1. Communication satellites: Relay telephone, television, and internet signals worldwide. 2. Weather satellites: Monitor Earth’ s weather patterns and help predict severe storms. 3. Navigation satellites: Provide GPS services for accurate positioning and navigation. 4. Earth observation satellites: Study our planet’s resources, monitor climate change, and track natural disasters. 5. Space telescopes: Observe distant stars, galaxies, and other cosmic phenomena. Exam Reference Page Includes: - Periodic Table (with atomic number, symbol, name, and atomic mass - NOT coloured or numbered by group or period) -D=m/V -V=IxR - %Efficiency = Eout/Ein x 100 - Cost of Operation = Power x Time x Cost of Electricity