Science Exam Review Outline PDF

Weather Definitions for Fill-in-the-Blanks 1.​ Weather: The atmospheric conditions (temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, etc.) at a specific place and time. 2.​ Heat Sink: A material or environment that absorbs and retains heat energy. 3.​ Conduction: The transfer of heat thr...

Weather Definitions for Fill-in-the-Blanks 1.​ Weather: The atmospheric conditions (temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, etc.) at a specific place and time. 2.​ Heat Sink: A material or environment that absorbs and retains heat energy. 3.​ Conduction: The transfer of heat through direct contact between materials. 4.​ Convection: The transfer of heat through the movement of fluids (liquids or gases). 5.​ Atmospheric Pressure: The force exerted by the weight of air in the atmosphere on a given area. 6.​ Humidity: The amount of water vapor present in the air. 7.​ Radiation: The transfer of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves, such as sunlight. 8.​ Albedo: The measure of how much sunlight is reflected by a surface (e.g., ice has a high albedo). 9.​ Air Mass: A large body of air with consistent temperature and moisture levels. 10.​High-Pressure System: An area where the atmospheric pressure is higher than the surrounding areas, typically bringing clear skies. 11.​Low-Pressure System: An area where the atmospheric pressure is lower than the surrounding areas, often associated with precipitation and storms. 12.​Meteorologist: A scientist who studies weather and atmospheric conditions. 13.​Thermometer: A tool used to measure temperature. 14.​Anemometer: An instrument used to measure wind speed. 15.​Weather Map: A visual representation of weather conditions over a specific area. Short Answer Questions 1. What are the components of weather? The main components of weather include: ​ Temperature ​ Humidity ​ Precipitation ​ Wind speed and direction ​ Atmospheric pressure 2. What is extreme weather, and what are the two examples discussed? Extreme weather refers to severe or unusual atmospheric conditions that can cause significant damage or disruption. Examples: ​ Hurricanes ​ Tornadoes 3. Briefly describe how each weather observation system is used to measure different aspects of weather: a) Weather Balloon: Measures atmospheric conditions like temperature, humidity, and pressure at various altitudes.​ b) Weather Radar: Detects precipitation and its intensity, helping track storms.​ c) Weather Satellites: Provide large-scale images of weather systems and monitor cloud cover, storms, and weather patterns globally. 4. Briefly explain the effects of weather on the following: a) Human Health: Extreme heat or cold can cause health issues like heatstroke or hypothermia, while air pollution worsens respiratory conditions.​ b) Agriculture: Changes in weather affect crop growth, irrigation needs, and harvesting conditions.​ c) Marine Industry: Weather affects navigation, fishing activities, and shipping safety.​ d) Forest Industry: Storms, droughts, and wildfires can damage forests and affect logging operations.​ e) Transportation: Severe weather disrupts air, road, and sea travel, causing delays and accidents. Ecology Definitions (fill in the blanks) Biosphere: The regions of Earth where life exists, including land, water, and air.​ Atmosphere: The layer of gases surrounding Earth.​ Hydrosphere: All water on Earth, including oceans, lakes, rivers, and groundwater.​ Lithosphere: Earth's solid outer layer, including rocks and soil.​ Ecology: The study of interactions between organisms and their environment.​ Biotic: Living components of an ecosystem (e.g., plants, animals).​ Abiotic: Non-living components of an ecosystem (e.g., sunlight, water).​ The Biological Hierarchy: Levels of biological organization from smallest to largest: organism → population → community → ecosystem → biome → biosphere.​ Photosynthesis vs. Cellular Respiration:  ​ Photosynthesis: Converts sunlight into glucose (in plants). ​ Cellular Respiration: Breaks down glucose to release energy (in all organisms).​ Food Chains: Linear sequence showing energy flow from producers to top consumers.​ Food Webs: Interconnected food chains showing energy flow in an ecosystem.​ 10% Rule: Only 10% of energy is transferred to the next trophic level; 90% is lost as heat.​ Populations: Groups of the same species in a specific area.​ Community: Different populations living and interacting in an area.​ Ecosystem: A community and its abiotic environment.​ Habitat: The physical area where an organism lives.​ Niche: The role or function of an organism in its environment.​ Producers: Organisms that make their own food (e.g., plants).​ Consumers (1°, 2°, 3°): ​ 1°: Herbivores (eat producers). ​ 2°: Carnivores/Omnivores (eat herbivores). ​ 3°: Top predators (eat 2° consumers).​ Herbivores: Animals that eat plants.​ Carnivores: Animals that eat other animals.​ Omnivores: Animals that eat both plants and animals.​ Trophic Levels: Levels in a food chain/web based on energy flow.​ Autotrophs: Organisms that produce their own food (e.g., plants).​ Heterotrophs: Organisms that consume others for energy.​ Nutrient Cycles: Movement of nutrients through ecosystems. ​ Water Cycle: Movement of water (evaporation, condensation, precipitation). ​ Carbon Cycle: Exchange of carbon between organisms, soil, and the atmosphere. ​ Nitrogen Cycle: Conversion of nitrogen into usable forms by bacteria and plants.​ Population Dynamics: Study of changes in population size and composition.​ Exponential Growth: Rapid population increase under ideal conditions.​ Limiting Factors: Factors that restrict population growth (e.g., food, space).​ Carrying Capacity: Maximum population size an environment can support.​ Ecological Relationships: ​ Mutualism: Both species benefit. ​ Commensalism: One benefits, the other is unaffected. ​ Parasitism: One benefits, the other is harmed. Competition: Organisms compete for resources.​ Biodiversity: Variety of life in an ecosystem.​ Extirpated: Species locally extinct but found elsewhere.​ Endangered: At risk of extinction.​ Threatened: Likely to become endangered.​ Special Concern: Sensitive to environmental changes.​ Pollution: Harmful substances introduced into the environment.​ Bioaccumulation: Toxins build up in an organism over time.​ Biomagnification: Toxins increase in concentration at higher trophic levels.​ Invasive Species: Non-native species disrupting ecosystems.​ Eutrophication: Excess nutrients in water causing algal blooms and oxygen depletion.​ Carbon Footprint: Total greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual or activity. Scavengers:​ Scavengers are animals that feed on dead and decaying plant or animal matter. Examples include vultures, hyenas, and crabs. Terrestrial Ecosystems:​ Land-based ecosystems that include forests, grasslands, deserts, and tundras. They are influenced by soil, climate, and vegetation. Aquatic Ecosystems:​ Water-based ecosystems, including freshwater (lakes, rivers) and marine (oceans, seas) environments. They are influenced by water depth, salinity, and temperature. Questions and Answers 1.​ Certain industrial processes produce sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxides. Explain how these processes negatively affect different ecosystems. ○​ These gases contribute to the formation of acid rain, which lowers the pH levels in soil and water. Acid rain can leach nutrients from the soil, harming plant growth, and can also lower the pH of water bodies, making them toxic for aquatic organisms. Over time, this damages forests, freshwater ecosystems, and biodiversity. 2.​ Wolves often eat farmers’ sheep. They also eat wild animals, such as deer. Early in the century, it was considered useful to hunt and kill all the wolves in an area. Explain in detail one harmful effect of this approach to controlling predator populations. ○​ Eliminating wolves disrupts the food chain. Without wolves to control their population, deer and other prey species can overpopulate. This leads to overgrazing, which destroys vegetation and reduces food sources for other herbivores. Over time, the lack of vegetation can cause soil erosion and degrade the ecosystem, harming biodiversity and reducing habitat quality for many species. 3.​ Using the diagram of the carbon cycle, describe two separate interactions between any two of the biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, or atmosphere. ○​ Plants (biosphere) absorb carbon dioxide (atmosphere) during photosynthesis, converting it into glucose and oxygen. ○​ Carbon from decomposing plants and animals (biosphere) can be stored in soil as organic matter or fossil fuels (lithosphere). Over time, these carbon stores can release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere through combustion or decomposition. 4.​ Describe two human activities that could change the dynamic equilibrium of this ecosystem.  ○​ Deforestation: Cutting down forests removes trees that absorb carbon dioxide, increasing greenhouse gas levels and contributing to climate change. It also destroys habitats, reducing biodiversity and upsetting food chains. ○​ Overfishing: Removing too many fish from a marine ecosystem can collapse the food web, leading to imbalances where predator or prey species overpopulate or decline, harming overall ecosystem health. 5.​ Describe what will happen with the release of DDT into the food chain below. Include the name of the process. ○​ Process: Biomagnification. ○​ DDT will accumulate in the bodies of organisms at each trophic level. Zooplankton will absorb DDT, and small fish that eat them will ingest higher amounts. Large fish that eat smaller fish will accumulate even more DDT, and bald eagles at the top of the food chain will have the highest concentration. This can cause severe health problems for bald eagles, including thinner eggshells, reproductive failure, and population declines. 6.​ Explain what is meant by the term biodiversity and give an example of an invasive species that would affect this ecosystem. Explain how this ecosystem could be impacted by the addition of an invasive species. ○​ Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms in an ecosystem, including plants, animals, and microorganisms. High biodiversity increases the stability and resilience of ecosystems. ○​ Example: Zebra mussels are an invasive species in freshwater lakes. They outcompete native mussels for food and space, disrupting the balance of the ecosystem. Their presence can reduce populations of native species, clog water intakes for power plants, and alter nutrient cycling. This harms biodiversity and diminishes ecosystem services like water purification and habitat provision. 7.​ What is an ecosystem?​ An ecosystem is a community of living organisms interacting with non-living elements like air, water, and soil. 8.​ What is the difference between a community and population?​ A population is all members of one species in an area, while a community includes all populations of different species in the same area. 9.​ What is the difference between biotic and abiotic components? Give examples of each. ​ Biotic: Living components like plants, animals, and bacteria. ​ Abiotic: Non-living components like sunlight, water, and soil. 4.​ Draw an example of a food chain.​ Grass → Rabbit → Fox → Eagle. 5.​ If one organism is removed from the food web, what would happen to other organisms above it or below it?​ If one organism is removed, predators might decline due to lack of food, and prey might overpopulate, disrupting balance. 6.​ What is the difference between the first trophic level, second trophic level, third trophic level and the forth trophic level? ​ 1st level: Producers (plants). ​ 2nd level: Primary consumers (herbivores). ​ 3rd level: Secondary consumers (small carnivores). ​ 4th level: Tertiary consumers (top predators). 7.​ What is the difference between an autotroph and a heterotroph? ​ Autotroph: Makes its own food (e.g., plants). ​ Heterotroph: Eats other organisms for energy (e.g., animals). 8.​ What is the difference between predator and prey? ​ Predator: Hunts and eats other organisms. ​ Prey: Is hunted and eaten by predators. 9.​ What is the difference between habitat and niche and ecotone? ​ Habitat: The physical place where an organism lives. ​ Niche: The organism's role or function in its ecosystem. ​ Ecotone: A transitional area between two ecosystems. 10.​Describe and explain how pesticides bioaccumulate in an ecosystem and what effect does this have on the ecosystem.​ Pesticides accumulate in organisms, especially in top predators, leading to toxic effects, reduced reproduction, and decreased biodiversity. 11.​What biome do you live in?​ The biome depends on your location. Examples: desert, temperate forest, or grassland. 12.​Describe the transfer of energy through a food chain from trophic level to trophic level mentioning the 10% energy rule.​ Only 10% of energy transfers to the next trophic level; most is lost as heat. For example, grass → deer → lion. 13.​Describe both biotic and abiotic limiting factors that affect both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. ​ Biotic: Predators, disease, competition. ​ Abiotic: Temperature, sunlight, water availability. 14.​Describe eutrophication and what is its impact on lakes.​ Excess nutrients cause algae blooms, depleting oxygen and harming aquatic life by creating dead zones. 15.​Describe the cause and effect of acid rain and air pollution.​ Acid rain is caused by sulfur and nitrogen oxides from burning fossil fuels. It damages soil, water, and vegetation. 16.​Explain the effect of exotic invasive species being introduced to an ecosystem and what problems may arise with the introduction.​ Invasive species outcompete native species, reduce biodiversity, and upset ecosystem balance. 17.​Why do living things become extinct and what are the classes of threatened endangered living things?​ Living things become extinct due to habitat destruction, pollution, overhunting, or climate change. Threatened species include endangered, extirpated, and of special concern. 18.​What are some things you can do in your everyday lives to decrease your negative impact on the environment that you live in?​  Reduce waste, conserve water, use renewable energy, recycle, and plant trees to help reduce your environmental impact. Tundra ​ Location: Northern Canada, Arctic regions ​ Two Abiotic Factors: Cold temperatures, permafrost ​ Two Biotic Factors: Limited plant life (mosses, lichens), Arctic animals (polar bears, caribou) ​ Two Examples of Organisms: Polar bears, Arctic foxes Boreal Forest ​ Location: Canada’s northern forest region (also called Taiga) ​ Two Abiotic Factors: Cold temperatures, long winters ​ Two Biotic Factors: Coniferous trees (spruce, pine), various wildlife (wolves, moose) ​ Two Examples of Organisms: Moose, beavers Grassland ​ Location: Prairie regions of Canada (southern Alberta, Saskatchewan) ​ Two Abiotic Factors: Low precipitation, seasonal temperature variations ​ Two Biotic Factors: Grasses, grazing animals (bison, pronghorns) ​ Two Examples of Organisms: Bison, prairie dogs Temperate Deciduous Forest ​ Location: Eastern Canada, parts of the U.S. and Europe ​ Two Abiotic Factors: Moderate rainfall, seasonal temperature changes (cold winters, warm summers) ​ Two Biotic Factors: Deciduous trees (oak, maple), various mammals and birds ​ Two Examples of Organisms: Deer, squirrels Photosynthesis ​ Word Equation:​ Carbon dioxide + Water → Glucose + Oxygen ​ Where it occurs in the cell:​ Chloroplasts (in plant cells) ​ How is it a complimentary process:​ Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose and oxygen. The oxygen produced is used in cellular respiration, and the glucose is used as a fuel source for cellular respiration. Cellular respiration then produces carbon dioxide and water as waste products, which are used again in photosynthesis, creating a cycle. Cellular Respiration ​ Word Equation:​ Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy (ATP) ​ Where it occurs in the cell:​ Mitochondria (in both plant and animal cells) ​ How is it a complimentary process:​ Cellular respiration breaks down glucose and oxygen to produce energy, carbon dioxide, and water. The carbon dioxide and water are used in photosynthesis to create glucose and oxygen, thus linking the two processes in a cycle that supports life on Earth. Human Activity Impact on the Ecosystem Ways to Reduce the Impact Forestry Deforestation, loss of biodiversity, Implement sustainable logging habitat destruction, and disruption practices, replant trees, protect of carbon and water cycles. forest habitats, and promote conservation efforts. Fertilizers Eutrophication in water bodies, Use organic fertilizers, reduce algal blooms, oxygen depletion, chemical fertilizer use, and and harm to aquatic life. implement controlled application methods. Pollution/Acid Damages aquatic ecosystems, Reduce industrial emissions, Rain harms soil, and affects plant transition to clean energy, and growth. Causes pH imbalances in enforce environmental regulations water bodies. on air quality. Pesticides Harm to non-target organisms Use integrated pest management, (e.g., pollinators), soil degradation, reduce pesticide use, and promote and disruption of food webs. the use of organic or natural alternatives. Chemistry Chemical and Physical Properties ​ Chemical Properties: Properties that describe a substance’s ability to undergo a chemical reaction (e.g., flammability, reactivity). ​ Physical Properties: Characteristics that can be observed or measured without changing the substance (e.g., color, density, boiling point). Chemical and Physical Changes ​ Chemical Change: A change that results in the formation of a new substance (e.g., rusting iron). Signs that a chemical change has occurred include: ​ Color Change ​ Gas Production ​ Temperature Change ​ Formation of Precipitate ​ Physical Change: A change that does not alter the substance’s chemical structure (e.g., melting ice). Protons, Neutrons, Electrons ​ Protons: Positive charge, found in the nucleus, used to determine the atomic number. ​ Neutrons: Neutral charge, found in the nucleus, used to calculate atomic mass. ​ Electrons: Negative charge, found in electron clouds, involved in chemical bonding. ​ To calculate the number of neutrons: Atomic Mass - Atomic Number = Number of Neutrons. Matter Chart ​ Pure Substances: Composed of only one type of element or compound (e.g., water, gold). ​ Mixtures: Combination of two or more substances that are not chemically bonded (e.g., air, salad). Periodic Table ​ Periods: Horizontal rows, determine the number of electron shells. ​ Families: Vertical columns, share similar chemical properties. ○​ Alkali Metals: Group 1, very reactive (e.g., sodium).  ○​ Earth Alkali Metals: Group 2, reactive but less than alkali (e.g., magnesium). ○​ Halogens: Group 17, highly reactive (e.g., chlorine). ○​ Noble Gases: Group 18, non-reactive (e.g., helium). ​ Metals: Good conductors of heat/electricity (e.g., iron). ​ Nonmetals: Poor conductors, often gases or brittle solids (e.g., oxygen). ​ Metalloids: Properties between metals and nonmetals (e.g., silicon). Changes in State ​ Melting: Solid to liquid. ​ Freezing: Liquid to solid. ​ Condensation: Gas to liquid. ​ Evaporation: Liquid to gas. Bohr Rutherford Diagrams ​ Represent electrons in energy levels around the nucleus. ​ Electrons fill the first shell with a maximum of 2 electrons, second with 8, third with 8, and so on. Lewis Dot Diagrams ​ Show the valence electrons of an atom as dots around the symbol. ​ Use dots to represent electrons in the outermost shell. Ionic and Covalent Bonding Diagrams ​ Ionic Bonding: Electrons are transferred between atoms, resulting in oppositely charged ions (e.g., NaCl). ​ Covalent Bonding: Electrons are shared between atoms (e.g., H₂O). Valence Electrons ​ Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom that are involved in bonding. Ionic Compounds (Formulas and Names) ​ Formed between metals and nonmetals. ​ Example: NaCl (Sodium chloride). Polyatomic Compounds (Formulas and Names) ​ Compounds containing more than two elements, often with a group of atoms acting as a single ion. ​ Example: NaNO₃ (Sodium nitrate). Covalent Compounds (Formulas and Names) ​ Formed by the sharing of electrons between nonmetals. ​ Example: CO₂ (Carbon dioxide). Counting Elements and Atoms in a Chemical Formula ​ Example: In H₂O, there are 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom. Word, Skeletal, and Balanced Chemical Equations  ​ Word Equation: Describes the reaction using names (e.g., hydrogen + oxygen → water). ​ Skeletal Equation: Uses chemical formulas (e.g., H₂ + O₂ → H₂O). ​ Balanced Equation: Has the same number of atoms on both sides (e.g., 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O). Types of Reactions ​ SD (Synthesis Decomposition): Two reactants combine to form one product (A + B → AB). ​ DD (Double Displacement): Two compounds react and swap elements (AB + CD → AD + BC). ​ S (Single Displacement): One element displaces another in a compound (A + BC → AC + B). ​ D (Decomposition): One compound breaks into two or more products (AB → A + B). ​ Combustion: A substance reacts with oxygen to produce heat and light (e.g., CH₄ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O). Neutralization Reactions ​ Acid + Base → Salt + Water. ​ Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O. Common Names of Compounds ​ Example: CH₄ is methane, not carbon tetrachloride. Identifying and Naming Acids and Bases ​ Acids: pH less than 7, donate H⁺ ions. ​ Bases: pH greater than 7, donate OH⁻ ions. ​ Acids (e.g., HCl), Bases (e.g., NaOH). Household Items as Acids and Bases ​ Acids: Vinegar, lemon juice. ​ Bases: Baking soda, soap. Indicators for Acids and Bases ​ Litmus Paper: Red for acids, blue for bases. ​ pH Paper: Shows exact pH level.  1.​ If a substance has a pH of 7.5, is it acidic, neutral, or basic? ○​ It is basic (alkaline), as it has a pH above 7. 2.​ If you found a solid substance in your kitchen cupboard, how would you test it to decide whether it was an acid or base? ○​ You could use pH paper or litmus paper. If the paper turns red, the substance is acidic. If it turns blue, it is basic. You could also use universal pH indicator or a pH meter for more accuracy. State whether each of the following is a physical or chemical property of the substance: 1.​ Chlorine gas liquefies at -35°C: ○​ Physical property (it describes a phase change). 2.​ Iron rusts in an atmosphere of moist air: ○​ Chemical property (rusting is a chemical reaction with oxygen and moisture). 3.​ Lithium is a soft, silvery metal: ○​ Physical property (describes physical characteristics of the metal). 4.​ Potassium chloride dissolves in water: ○​ Physical property (dissolving is a physical change in state). State whether each of the following is a physical or chemical change: 1.​ Melting of sodium chloride: ○​ Physical change (it changes from solid to liquid but remains the same substance). 2.​ Burning of sulfur: ○​ Chemical change (it reacts with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide, creating a new substance). 3.​ Dissolving of salt in water: ○​ Physical change (the salt dissolves but does not chemically change). THE PERIODIC TABLE & THE ELEMENTS: 1.​ What element is found in group 2 period 3? ○​ Magnesium (Mg). 2.​ Which is not a metal: Mg, Li, Si, Na? ○​ Si (Silicon) is not a metal; it is a metalloid. 3.​ What name is given to Group 17? ○​ Halogens. THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS: 1.​ What is the law of conservation of mass? ○​ The law of conservation of mass states that mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. The total mass of the reactants equals the total mass of the products.