Science Exam Review Doc PDF

Science Exam Doc Sam L Part 1 ​ The characteristics of living things and what something requires to be considered living -​ Cells, Living things are made up of cells -​ Reproduce, Living things produce offspring -​ Growth, Living things grow and develop -​...

Science Exam Doc Sam L Part 1 ​ The characteristics of living things and what something requires to be considered living -​ Cells, Living things are made up of cells -​ Reproduce, Living things produce offspring -​ Growth, Living things grow and develop -​ Energy, Living things either make their own food, eat other things, or break down dead materials -​ Respond to changes, Living things are sensitive and could react rapidly to surroundings -​ Repair, Living things repair worn out or injured parts. -​ Produce Waste, Living things produce unuseable or unwanted materials that are released into the environment -​ Lifespan, Living things have a cycle of life _________________________________________________________________________ ​ The components of cell theory -​ Living organisms are composed of one or more cells -​ The Cell is the basic unit of life -​ All Cells are produced from other cells. _________________________________________________________________________ ​ The parts of the microscope and what they are used for Main: -​ Eyepiece, To view the Specimen -​ Nosepiece, Rotates to change between different lenses -​ Objective Lenses, 3-4 different lenses, from 40x-400x -​ Stage Clips, To hold down a slide -​ Diaphragm, To adjust the amount of light -​ Light Source, Shines into specimen and into lenses  -​ Stage, The platform where the slide is placed -​ Fine & Course Adjustment, Turns the focus, Moves the stage up and down _________________________________________________________________________ ​ How to calculate magnification with a microscope -​ Objective lens 4x, 10x, 40x -​ Eyepiece 10x -​ Total, 40x, 100x, 400x, _________________________________________________________________________ ​ The differences between plant and animal cells Plant: -​ Cell wall, chloroplast, Vacuoles are bigger, fixed and rectangular shape, rarely any lysosomes ​ Animal: -​ Irregular/round shaped, more lysosomes, has centrioles, a flexible membrane _________________________________________________________________________ ​ What are organelles? -​ Organelles are parts of a cell, they make up a whole cell with the various different functions they do. -​ A specialized ‘organ’ within a cell that performs a certain function for the cell. _________________________________________________________________________ ​ The main components within a cell and what their job is -​ Cytoplasm -​ Holds organelles in place, to help organelles function properly -​ Transport materials -​ Store Molecules -​ You can find it anywhere in the gaps of the organelles -​ Cell membrane -​ Controls what goes in and out of the cell -​ You can find it near the outer boundary of the cell, and has a thin and flexible layer  -​ Nucleus (nuclei when plural) -​ Controls all cell activities, its size, and reproduction -​ It's found near to the center, a circle like oval shape, quite big -​ Vacuoles -​ Stores food and water for the cell -​ Found near center around the nucleus, size, could appear as clear empty spaces -​ Cell wall -​ Surrounds the cell membranes, and gives protection throughout the cell -​ Found on the outer boundary of the cell -​ Chloroplast -​ Converts light energy into chemical energy/ Photosynthesis -​ Found in cytoplasm, are green-ish coloured, very small -​ Nucleolus -​ Makes Ribosomes and directs how they are to function -​ Found near the center, in the nucleus, a circle -​ Mitochondria -​ Produce energy for the cells functions -​ Found scattered throughout the cytoplasm, oval-like shapes, quite small -​ Endoplasmic Reticulum (rough and smooth) -​ Transport protein and other materials throughout the cell -​ Rough(E.R) contain ribosomes, and smooth(E.R) does not -​ Found near the nucleus, the Rough E.R has a rougher surface look, -​ Golgi Body -​ Assembles and packages proteins for distribution -​ Found near center with Nucleus and ER, small and dark -​ Vesicles -​ Transport materials through the cell and go through cell membrane to move materials out of the cell. -​ Found scattered in cytoplasm, could be seen near Golgi and ER -​ Lysosomes -​ Break down worn out cell parts and digest the cell waste -​ Also found near Golgi and ER, and throughout the cytoplasm _________________________________________________________________________ Cell Membrane Structure ​ What it is: A thin, flexible layer surrounding the cell, controlling what enters and exits. ​ Made of: ○​ Phospholipids: Form a bilayer. ​ Head: Hydrophilic ("water-loving"), faces outward toward water. ​ Tail: Hydrophobic ("water-fearing"), faces inward away from water. ○​ Proteins: Help transport particles in and out. How Particles Move In and Out 1.​ Passive Transport (No energy needed): ○​ Diffusion: Particles move from high to low concentration. ○​ Osmosis: Water moves through the membrane from high to low concentration. 2.​ Active Transport (Energy needed): ○​ Particles move from low to high concentration using energy (ATP). ○​ Facilitated Diffusion: Proteins help larger or charged particles move across. 3.​ Bulk Transport: ○​ Endocytosis: Cell takes in large particles. ○​ Exocytosis: Cell releases large particles. Key Points ​ The cell membrane is selectively permeable, meaning it only lets certain things in and out. ​ Small, uncharged particles (like oxygen) pass easily. Larger or charged particles (like glucose or ions) need help from proteins. _________________________________________________________________________ How Diffusion Works ​ What it is: Movement of particles from an area of high concentration to low concentration. ​ Example: Smelling cologne across a room. 2. How Osmosis Works ​ What it is: The diffusion of water through a membrane from high water concentration low water concentration. ​ Isotonic: water in, water out. The concentration of solutes is the same inside & outside the cell. ​ Hypertonic: water out. Solution has a higher concentration of solute than the cell. ​ Hypotonic: water in. The concentration of solutes is the same inside & outside the cell. ​ Example: A raisin swelling up in water. 3. Diffusion vs. Osmosis ​ Similarities: Both move substances from high to low concentration without energy. ​ Differences: ○​ Diffusion moves all types of particles. ○​ Osmosis moves only water. 4. Endocytosis ​ What it is: The cell takes in materials by folding its membrane around them. ​ Types: ○​ Phagocytosis: "Cell eating" (engulfs large particles). ○​ Pinocytosis: "Cell drinking" (engulfs liquids). 5. Exocytosis ​ What it is: The cell pushes materials out by fusing a vesicle with the membrane. ​ When food is first introduced into an animal cell, it enters the cell membrane through active transport. The food is stored in the vacuole until it is ready to be digested. Then, the  lysosome gets to work digesting it: breaking it down to get the nutrients like glucose out of it. Once the lysosome breaks it down, it sends the glucose to the mitochondria to be used along with oxygen to perform so your the process that uses sugar to create fusible energy for the cell otherwise known as ATP the leftover waste are then farther both down by the lysosomes and expelled from the cell through exocytosis. 6. Classifying Organisms: The 5 Kingdoms ​ 1. Protist: Mostly single-celled, live in water, contains both characteristics (e.g., algae, amoeba). ​ 2. Bacteria: Single-celled, no nucleus, everywhere, (e.g., E. coli). ​ 3. Plant: Multicellular, make food via photosynthesis (e.g., trees, moss). ​ 4. Animal: Multicellular, consume food, vertebrate/invertebrate (e.g., humans, insects). ​ 5. Fungi: Absorb nutrients from dead matter, multicellular/unicellular (e.g., mushrooms, yeast). 7. Unicellular Organisms ​ Characteristics: One cell, simple, eat and move differently. ​ Examples: ○​ Paramecium: Found in aquatic environments. They are animal-like-protists, they feed on bacteria, algae, and waste. The paramecium contains an oral groove, which draws food into the cavity. The paramecium uses a cilia that beats in unison to move around. ○​ Amoeba: Moves with pseudopods. The pseudopods stretch around to also capture food and turn it into a vacuole. The amoeba is an animal-like protist. Its vacuole is both for storage and digestion. They release chemicals into the vacuole when needed for nutrients. ○​ Euglena: Moves with flagella (whip-like tail). They can have photosynthesis and have an oral groove. The Euglena is a protist that has both plant and animal characteristics. They live in bodies of water. 8. Multicellular Organisms ​ Key concepts: ○​ Made of many cells that work together. ○​ Cellular differentiation: Cells specialized for different jobs. ○​ Tissues: Groups of similar cells (e.g., muscle tissue). ○​ Organs: Made of tissues working together (e.g., heart). ○​ Organ systems: Organs that work together (e.g., digestive system). 9. Living Things' Needs ​ Nutrition: Getting energy to live (eating, absorbing, or photosynthesis). ​ Gas Exchange: Taking in oxygen, releasing carbon dioxide (e.g., breathing). ​ Responding to the Environment: Reacting to changes (e.g., moving toward light). ​ Locomotion and Movement: Moving to meet needs (e.g., animals walk, plants grow toward light 10. Bubble Lab ​ Membranes are fluid and flexible 1.​ Wobbling 2.​ Lightly blowing 3.​ Lightly touching ​ Membranes can self repair 1.​ Push through 2.​ Pull through ​ Each organelle is surrounded by a Membrane 1.​ We could blow a thick bubble into the tray 2.​ And then we can blow another one. ​ Membranes have transport proteins 1.​ We used a loop to make a hole in the bubble ​ Membranes allow binary fission to occur (the cell splits into two cells) 1.​ Slicing the bubble creates 2 Part 2 Viscosity ​ Definition: A measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. ​ Examples: Honey has high viscosity, while water has low viscosity. 2. Surface Tension ​ Definition: The cohesive force at the surface of a liquid that causes it to behave like a stretched elastic sheet. There are less bonds on the surface. Therefore, they are stronger ​ Examples: Water forming droplets on a surface. 3. Adhesion ​ Definition: The attraction between particles of a fluid and a solid surface. ​ Examples: Water sticking to glass. 4. Cohesion ​ Definition: The attraction between particles of the same substance. ​ Examples: Water molecules sticking together. 5. Laminar Flow ​ Definition: Smooth, orderly flow of a fluid. ​ Examples: Water flowing smoothly through a pipe. 6. Turbulent Flow ​ Definition: Chaotic, irregular fluid movement. ​ Examples: Water flowing rapidly over rocks in a river. Modifying Viscosity ​ To increase viscosity: Cool the fluid or add thickening agents. ​ To decrease viscosity: Heat the fluid or dilute it. Particle Theory of Matter ​ Key points: ○​ Matter is made up of tiny particles. ○​ Particles are always moving. ○​ Particles attract each other. ○​ Temperature affects particle movement. ​ Applications: Explains viscosity, density, and flow behavior. 7. Density ​ Definition: The mass of a substance per unit volume (Density = Mass ÷ Volume). ​ Units: g/cm³ or kg/m³. Calculating Density and Volume ​ Density formula:​ Density=Mass/Volume ​ Volume of irregular objects: Use the displacement method. ○​ Place the object in water and measure how much water is displaced. 8. Buoyancy ​ Definition: The upward force exerted by a fluid on an object. ​ Key factors: ○​ An object floats if its density is less than the fluid's. ○​ An object sinks if its density is greater. Displacement vs. Ability to Float ​ Water displacement: The volume of water displaced equals the submerged volume of the object. ​ Floating: Depends on the balance of gravitational force and buoyant force. Buoyancy in Air vs. Water ​ Objects can float in air (e.g., helium balloons) if their density is less than air. Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems ​ Pneumatic systems: Use compressed air to transmit force (e.g., air brakes). ​ Hydraulic systems: Use liquids to transmit force (e.g., car lifts). Air and Water Pressure ​ Definition: Force exerted per unit area (cm) by air or water. ​ Factors: Depth increases pressure in fluids.  Pascal’s Law ​ Definition: Pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted equally in all directions. ​ Example: Hydraulic press ​ Increasing pressure: Force applied is transferred into a smaller area ​ Decreasing pressure: Force applied is transferred into a larger area. Atmospheric pressure decreases as you go higher up in altitude. Parts of a Fluid system: ​ Pump: Forces liquids through a system ​ Conductor: provide a pathway to carry the fluid ​ Valve: Keeping the fluid moving in the desired direction ​ Pressure Gauge: Monitors pressure within the system.