Science Exam Notes PDF

Science Exam Notes ***(DO DIAGRAMS FOR LEWIS AND ROMAN NUMERALS AND BALANCING AND RENEWABLE AND NON SHEET AFTER NOTES ARE COMPLETED)*** Unit 1: Chemistry ​ Matter: anything that has mass and volume and is classified as a pure substance or a mixture Pure substance...

Science Exam Notes ***(DO DIAGRAMS FOR LEWIS AND ROMAN NUMERALS AND BALANCING AND RENEWABLE AND NON SHEET AFTER NOTES ARE COMPLETED)*** Unit 1: Chemistry ​ Matter: anything that has mass and volume and is classified as a pure substance or a mixture Pure substance Mixture Always homogeneous Mechanical mixtures are heterogeneous, solutions are homogeneous There are 2 types: Element (cannot be There are 2 types: mechanical mixtures and broken down into simpler substances by solutions chem means) and compound (made of 2+ elements in a fixed ratio) ​ Physical properties are characteristic of a substance that can be measured (quantitative) or observed (qualitative) Include the following: -​ Brittleness: tendency of a solid to break when force is applied -​ Colour: property possessed by a substance of producing diff sensations on the eye as a result of the way it reflects/emits light -​ Conductivity: the ability of an object to conduct electricity/heat -​ Density: amount of mass in a given volume, measured in g/cm cubed or g/ml -​ Ductility: the ability of a solid to be stretched into a long wire -​ Hardness: the ability of a material to resist being scratched -​ Lustre: the ability of a solid to reflect light -​ Mealiability: ability of a solid to be pounded into sheets -​ Melting and boiling points: temperature at which a solid turns into liquid, or a liquid to gas -​ Optical clarity: ability of a material to let light pass through -​ Viscosity: thickness of a fluid -​ Solubility: degree to which the solute dissolves in a solvent -​ State at room temperature: a substance is either a solid, liquid, or gas  ​ A chemical property is the ability of a substance to change into a new substance(s), for ex, flammability and reactivity Look for.. 1.​ An unexpected change in colour 2.​ Unexpected odor change 3.​ Appearance of a solid (called a precipitate) within a liquid 4.​ Gas bubbles 5.​ Unexpected temp change or light/sound production (happens when energy is emitted or absorbed) 6.​ If the change is irreversible or hard to ​ There are 118 elements all classified as a metal, nonmetal or metalloid Name Metals Nonmetals Metaloid Properties shiny, malleable, do not have the posses metallic and good conductors, properties of metals nonmetallic and ductile, properties Location located left and located top right of located along the center of periodic periodic table staircase line table State at room All solid except Some are solid Include boron, temperature and mercury (carbon, sulfur..) silicon, geranium, examples some gas (oxygen, arsenic, antimony, nitrogen..) and tellurium, and bromine a liquid at polonium, all solids room temperature ​ Demetri mendeleev arranged the table by certain properties ​ Organized into horizontal rows and vertical columns Horizontal rows are called periods and result in a decrease of reactivity in metals and an increase in reactivity for nonmetals Vertical columns are known as chem family groups. Elements in the same group have similar properties of matter: Alkali metals (group 1): solid, silver -gray, shiny, soft malleable, good conductors, very reactive; reactivity increases as you move down the group Alkaline earth metals (group 2): solid, silver-gray, shiny, malleable soft but not as soft as alkali, good conductors, but not as good as alkali; reactivity increases as you move down the group Halogen (group 17): coloured nonmetals, all very reactive; reactivity increases as you move up the group Noble gasses (group 18): colourless gases, none chemically reactive Compounds: made up of 2+ elements - there are 2 types NAME: Ionic compound Molecular compound Definition: 1 metal and 1 non metal 2 diff NONMETAL that forms positive and elements which share negative charged ions valence to form small called cations and anions groups called molecules (this is called a covalent bond) Types: Binary ionic compounds: There is only 1 type of ionic compound composed covalent bond of exactly 2 different elements: a metal cation and nonmetal anion Polyatomic ionic compound: ionic compound composed of more than 2 different elements - usually a metal cation and polyatomic anion Characteristics: Form solid crystals, Solids, liquids or gasses at room temp  High melting and boiling points Low melting and boiling points Good conductors of electricity Poor conductors of electricity Unit 2: Physics/Electricity ​ Static electricity: the charge that builds up on an object's surface ​ Law of electric charges: 1.​ Particles with opposite charges attract 2.​ Particles with like charges repel 3.​ Positive and negative attract neutral - when a charged is brought close to the neutral it induces a change resulting in attraction Conductor: easily allows electrons to pass through it because electrons are not bound tightly to the atoms that make the material ​ There are 2 types of conductors: 1.​ Good conductors: allow electrons through very easily, for ex, metals 2.​ fair/semiconductors: allow electrons to pass through w some difficulty, for ex skin Insulator: Does not easily allows electrons to pass through it because electrons are bound tightly to the atoms that make the material, for example, nonmetals There are 3 ways to charge an object; friction, conduction, induction Name Friction Conduction induction Force resisting the Movement/transmis Movement of relative motion of 2 sion of electrons electrons within a surfaces in contact through 1 or more substance without substances direct contact How it works 2 neutral objects 2 objects with diff Temporary made of different amounts of electric induction occurs  materials rub charge touch and when no rod is against each other electrons move present but a and friction from the object that neutral and charged removes electrons has more negative object are brought from 1 object and charge to the object near each other transfers them to that has a less the other based on negative charge Permanent the substances induction occurs relative electron when a rod is affinities on the present and electrostatic series grounding is used to charge an object ​ Current electricity: steady/controlled flow of electrons through a conductor Electrical circuit: continuous pattern in which electrons can flow ​ Simple circuits often have 4 parts 1.​ Source: 1 form of energy - electrical energy -​ Battery or generating station SOURCE: Battery Generating station HOW IT WORKS: Refers to 2+ electric cells Converts mechanical (converts chemical energy energy - electrical energy - electrical energy) in combination CURRENT: Provides direct current Provides alternating current 2.​ Load: converts electrical energy into other forms of energy (work) 3.​ Conducting/connecting wires: join all parts of an electric circuit together, allowing electrons to flow from 1 component to another 4.​ Switch: controls the flow of electrons in a circuit  -​ Closed switch: electrons can flow -​ Open switch: electrons are prevented from flowing through the circuit Generating electricity Name: Hydro Tidal Nuclear Geother Fuels/ Wind Photo- dams stations stations mal biomass farms voltaic stations generatio n Pros: No pollution No Lots of No Cost No No pollution energy pollution effective pollution pollution No air Methods of Cheaper Long pollution recycling No lasting specific location Cons: Habitat loss Limited Indirect Special Pollution Limited Limited Expensive by time source of location Takes use use Special Special pollution farmland Large Costly location location Biodiversity Acid area Causes Migration of loss precipitation Negative pollution fish is Illness Toxic by effect on Slow affected Expensive products bird population Renew Yes Yes No Yes Biomass, Yes Yes able or not fuels not: Electrical energy: energy that is provided by the flow of electrons in a circuit ​ Electrical energy is measured in Joules Electrical power: rate which electrical energy is produced/used ​ The unit of measurement for electrical power is watts ​ Formula for Power: P = E/T (E = PT, T = E/P) Efficiency: wasted energy when converted to not useful forms of energy like heat ​ Formula for efficiency: Output / Input x 100% Calculating cost of electricity:  ​ Formula: power used in kw x time in hours x cost in cents/kwh Circuit diagram: drawing made with symbols that show the components and connections in a circuit ​ Common symbols used in circuit diagrams -​ Battery: -I |- -​ Bulb: --⨶-- -​ Open switch: __/ __ -​ Closed switch: ___ -​ Resistor: _/\/\/\_ -​ Ammeter: __A__ -​ Voltmeter:__V__ ​ When drawing a circuit diagram, conducting wires should be straight lines and finished diagram should be a rectangle ​ There are 2 types of circuits: Simple and parallel Simple: Electrons flow in 1 path bc loads are arranged one after the other Parallel: 2+ paths for electrons to flow bc the loads are connected to by branches Electric current: a measure of the rate of electric flow past a given point in a circuit ​ The unit of measurement for electric current is the ampere ​ Current can be measured using an ammeter __(A)__ You should: -​ Set the ammeter to the highest current - low setting can be damaging -​ Never touch the tips of the ammeter leads to prevent shock -​ Connect ammeter in series to properly measure flow ​ Safety concerns -​ Large currents can damage devices. Circuit breakers and fuses prevent this bc when current gets too high, the safety features break leaving what acts as an open switch preventing flow and protecting you/the device ​ Can be calculated using the following: I = Q/T -​ Current is I and measured in amperes -​ Charge is q and measured in coulombs  -​ Time is t and measured in seconds Potential difference: the difference in electrical potential energy per unit charge, measured at 2 different points in a circuit ​ The symbol to represent potential difference is V (for voltage), and the unit of measurement is also V (for volts) ​ Potential difference must be measured with a voltmeter -​ Voltmeter must be connected in parallel w the battery/load ​ Can be calculated using the following: V = E/Q -​ V is potential difference and is measured in volts -​ E is energy and measured in joules -​ Charge is q and measured in coulombs Resistance: the ability of a material to oppose the flow of electric current. The greater resistance, the lower the current ​ Resistor: a device that reduces the flow of electric current ​ The symbol for resistance is R, the unit for resistance is ohms (Ω) ​ There are 4 factors that affect resistance 1.​ Material: metals have a loose hold on electrons, so they have low resistance Non metals have a tighter hold on electrons, so they have higher resistance 2.​ Cross sectional area: resistance increases w/ a decrease in cross sectional area 3.​ Length: resistance increases with a increase in wire length 4.​ Temperature: resistance increases w/ an increase in temperature ​ Ohm's law: states as long a temp stays the same, the following mathematical relationship exists between the 3 R = V/I  ​ Series circuit: Current I total = I1 = I2 = I3… ​ Series circuit: Potential difference (voltage) I total = I1 + I2 + I3… ​ Parallel circuit: Current V total = V1 + V2 + V3 ​ Parallel circuit: Potential difference (voltage) V total = V1 = V2 = V3… ​ Comparing resistance in series/parallel circuits: -​ Total resistance of loads connected in series is greater than the total resistance of loads connected in parallel, therefore Series: r total = r1 + r2 + r3.. Parallel: 1/r total = 1/r1 + 1/r2 + 1/r3.. Unit 3: Biology ​ Earth is divided into 3 parts: 1.​ Atmosphere: Layers of gases surrounding earth 2.​ Lithosphere: All of earth's solid landscape 3.​ Hydrosphere: All the water on earth in liquid, solid, and gas form ​ The biosphere includes parts of the atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere where life on earth can exist -​ There is a limit to how many organisms can stay here Ecosystem: abiotic and biotic factors of a region ​ A biotic factor is a living component of an ecosystem -​ Includes, organisms, their products, wastes, and remains -​ Individuals of a single species make a population -​ Many populations in an area form a community  ​ Abiotic factor: non living component of an ecosystem -​ Includes things such as light, salt content, water, minerals, temperature, air… ​ Water cycle: 1)​ Water vapour moves through the atmosphere as.. ​ Evaporation from large bodies of water ​ Transpiration from plants 2)​ Water in the atmosphere condenses into water droplets that forms clouds 3)​ When clouds become heavy with water droplets they fall as precipitation 4)​ Precipitation hits the earth then moves into different areas of it: ​ Surface runoff leads back to large bodies of water ​ Infiltration into the soil which plants can use 5)​ Cycle repeats Nitrogen cycle: 1)​ Organism wastes and dead organisms are converted to ammonium by decomposers 2)​ Ammonium is converted to nitrates by nitrifying bacteria 3)​ Nitrates are absorbed by plants to make protein 4)​ Animals eat plants so they can make protein 5)​ Animals produce wastes and eventually die (cycle repeats) ​ There are 2 additional bacteria that play roles in the nitrogen cycle: -​ Nitrogen fixing bacteria: convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into ammonium -​ Denitrifying bacteria: convert nitrates back into nitrogen gas in order to ensure there is a correct amount of nitrogen in the atmosphere Carbon cycle: ​ Based on 2 complementary processes: Photosynthesis and Cellular respiration 1.​ Photosynthesis: used to convert light into chemical energy found in food -​ Carbon dioxide + water + light energy ----> oxygen + glucose/sugar -​ Sugar that plants produce can be used as an energy source in cellular respiration, can be stores, or used to make other important molecules (Dna) 2.​ Cellular respiration: process that producers and consumers use to convert chemical energy to cellular energy so the body can function -​ Oxygen + glucose ----> water + carbon dioxide + cellular energy ​ The processes are complementary because the products of one are always the reactants of the other ​ Carbon can be stored in various reservoirs including: bodies of living things, oceans, fossil fuels, earth's crust Ecological niche: the function a species serves in an ecosystem, including how it behaves, what feeds on it, what it feeds on… Producer: an organism that makes its own food from the sun's energy (mainly plants) Consumer: obtains energy by consuming other organisms ​ There are 3 types: herbivore, carnivores, and omnivores ​ Primary consumers feed on producers ​ Secondary consumers feed on primary ​ Tertiary consumers feed on secondary Scavenger: feeds on the remains of another organism Decomposer: organism that breaks down dead/decaying matter and their waste, returning nutrients to the soil/water Food chain: sequence of organisms each feeding on the next, showing how energy is transferred from one organism to the next Trophic level: level of an organism in an ecosystem depending on its feeding positions along a food chain (draw from bottom to top) ​ Producers are the 1st trophic level ​ Consumers are the second trophic level ​ secondary consumers are the 3rd trophic levels ​ tertiary consumers are the 4th trophic level Food web: Multiple food chains together - presentation of feeding relationships within a community Ecological pyramids: representation of energy/biomass relationships in an ecosystem ​ Ecological pyramids of energy: shows the amount of available energy that an organisms contains as energy flows through a food chain -​ The amount of energy in each trophic level decreases because organisms use some of the energy for their own life processes ​ Ecological pyramids of biomass: shows the amount of biomass found within each trophic level -​ The amount decreases as you move through the food chain because biomass is lost through wastes such as feces or water during cellular respiration; not all of it is digested and stored Biotic factors that affect population: ​ Competition: Interactions between 2 organisms that rely on the same recourse in a given habitat ​ Predation: interaction between organisms where one organisms hunts and feeds on another ​ Symbiosis: the close interaction between 2 species where one lives in, on, or near the other. There are 3 types: -​ Mutualism: both species benefit from the interaction -​ Commensalism: one benefits without harming or helping the other -​ Parasitism: one species benefits while the other is harmed Abiotic factors that affect population: include things like gas, water, temp, acidity… ​ Abiotic factors affect survival differently depending on the specie ​ Every species is able to survive a range of a certain abiotic factor called tolerance rance  -​ Upper and lower limits: Death occurs here; as organisms reach these limits, they experience loss of health and rate of growth/reproduction -​ Optimal range: conditions for the organism are best: largest and healthiest species are found here Equilibrium: established when conditions in an ecosystem are stable Eco succession: The predictable biotic and abiotic changes in an ecosystem after a disturbance. ​ There are 2 types: Primary and secondary succession 1.​ Primary: succession on newly exposed ground -​ Slower process then secondary succession because no soil is present 2.​ Secondary: Succession on a partially disturbed ecosystem -​ Since there is already soil present, this type is faster Four categories of wildlife (not including extinct): ​ Extirpated: no longer exists on a certain area of earth ​ Endangered: facing extinction or extirpation ​ Threatened: likely to become endangered if factors dont change ​ Special concern: may become threatened/endangered There are multiple human activities affecting Biodiversity including… 1)​ Habitat loss: occurs when humans alter a habitat so native species can no longer live there, so they are forced to move or die out 2)​ Habitat fragmentation: dividing an ecosystem into smaller pieces ​ Joining fragmented pieces through corridors can reduce negative effects from habitat fragmentation 3)​ invasive species: non native species that thrive in their new environment ​ Invasive species have negative effects on the environments they are introduced to: -​ Cause destruction of crops -​ Disrupt food chain -​ increase/cause competition between species  ​ We must be careful when bringing materials from other locations or adding a species to an established ecosystem to avoid invasive species 4)​ Pollution: any harmful substance added to the environment that have different negative effects on it ​ The 2 types of pollution are air and water pollution Air pollution Water pollution Burning fossil fuels Ingestion of oil -​ large reason why air pollution is -​ can harm oceanic wildlife. occuring -​ can even prevent animals from flying. -​ Methods such as bioremediation and oil vacuuming of the waters surface reduce oil spill effects Acid rain Plastic pollution -​ Can affect animals on earth AND -​ Animals can get tangled up in in the ocean plastic -​ ingest it due to littering which blocks their digestive system -​ To reduce plastic pollution, we should use more environmentally friendly products 5)​ Climate change: change of climate characteristics in a region, like global warming ​ Global warming: Heating of earth Caused by increased CO2 emissions from fossil fuels -​ Canada is warming 2x as fast as the rest of the globe -​ Less precipitation and higher temperatures = shorter winters ​ Species are going extinct from climate change 6)​ Pesticide use  Pest: a organism that causes annoyance, harm or illness to humans ​ Pesticides have a number of costly environmental effects: 1.​ Can kill non target species -​ If these species are helpful to humans the result can be disastrous 2.​ Bioamplification: when an organism is bioaccumulated, the pesticide is eaten by another animal and this process continues until the highest trophic level posses the highest concentration of pesticide -​ Bioaccumulation: When organisms consume food with pesticide and it gets stored in the fatty tissue 3.​ Pesticide resistant: pests can become resistant to pesticides over a long period of time. Farmers then have to use an even greater amount of pesticides or switch to organic farming methods: -​ Organic farming: includes the following methods Biological control: use of predatory organisms to control pests Altered timing: better timing of harvesting/planting to avoid pests Crop rotation and mixed planting: not growing monoculture in the same place causes pests to not prosper Baiting pest: Pheromone baits on mating pests to trap them Unit 4: Space Terminology: ​ Astronomy: study of what's beyond earth ​ Planet: large round celestial object that travels around a star -​ Humans and organisms live on earth ​ Star: A star is a massive collection of gases being held together by their own gravity while emitting huge amounts of energy -​ Our sun is a star that emits energy rays through electromagnetic radiation -​ The sun produces energy through nuclear fusion in the earth's core -​ It then provides us with heat/light Solar system: Sun and all the planets ​ Parts of a solar system include: -​ Terrestrial planets: closest to the sun, rocky surface similar to earth, includes mercury, venus, earth, mars -​ Gas giants: farthest from the sun, mainly made up of gas/liquid, includes jupiter saturn, uranus, neptune -​ Asteroid belt: space between terrestrial and gas giants where asteroids (celestial objects of rock and metal) can be found -​ Dwarf planets: Orbits a star but don't dominate their orbit, for ex, pluto -​ Meteoroids: similar to but smaller than asteroids, sometimes get pulled to earth by its gravitational pull -​ Comets: chunks of ice/dust that travel in very long orbits around the sun ​ Astronomical units (au): average distance between the sun and earth, more convenient then using kilometers ​ Galaxy: huge, rotating collection of gas, dust, stars, planets, and other celestial objects -​ Earth is apart of the milky way galaxy ​ Universe: everything that exists Orbit: closed path of a celestial object as it travels around another celestial object ​ Earth travels around the sun once every 365.25 days which is why a year is 36 days and a leap year is 366 days Seasons: explained by the fact that earth is tilted 23.5 degrees vertically on its axis ​ Summer solstice Winter solstice Equinox’s Earth's northern The northern Between the 2 solstices, hemisphere is tilted hemisphere is tilted the vernal equinox, towards the sun as much farthest from the sun as explaining spring, and as possible much as possible autumnal equinox, explaining fall, occur Longest day of the year Shortest day of the year Equal daytime and nighttime hours occur  ​ Earth makes a full rotation every 24 hours which is why a day lasts that long -​ When canada faces the sun it's our day, and when it faces away it's our night Lunar cycle -​ The moon seems to shine because it’s illuminated by the sun ​ When the moons lit side faces towards earth, it’s a full moon, and when it faces away it’s a new moon Tides: alternate rising and falling of the surface of water caused by the moon's gravity ​ Process of tide: the moon exerts a gravitational pull on the earth's oceans. The side closest to the moon bulges because the moon is pulling the water toward it, and the opposite side bulges as a result of the ocean lagging behind. This is known as high tide because the pull is strongest in these areas. Low tide is the area between the high tide/bulges. -​ There are 2 types of high tide -​ 1.​ Spring tides occur when the new and full phases of the moon occur; the moon and sun are pulling on earth's oceans along the same plane (higher than normal) 2.​ Neap tides: occur when the moon and sun are perpendicular during the 1st and 3rd quarter phases of the moon (less high then normal) Eclipses: darkening of a celestial object due to the position of another. There are 2 types - solar and lunar ​ Solar eclipse: when the moon is between the sun and earth, it blocks the sun from being observed from earth ​ Lunar: earth is positioned between the sun and moon, and a shadow is cast on the moon Satelites: celestial objects that travel around a larger celestial body ​ They don't crash into each other due to.. 1)​ the force of gravity from the larger object pulling the satellite 2)​ the forward motion of the satellite and curve of larger celestial object prevent crashing  ​ Artificial satellites collect data on things like forecast, weather, agriculture, navigation… ​ We use light years to measure distance in space How stars differ ​ Star brightness -​ Total amount of energy produced by a star is its luminosity -​ Brightness depends on luminosity and distance from the earth -​ We use absolute magnitude to compare stars b/c they are located at varying locations which make it difficult to determine what starts carry more energy ​ Colour and temperature: color is related to the temperature of a starts surface -​ Blue stars are hotter -​ Red stars are colder ​ Composition: spectrographs separate emitted light by its wavelength and record the resulting spectrum to determine what elements make up a star ​ Mass of a star: Stars differ in mass/size Life cycle of a star 1)​ Begins deep inside a massive cloud of gas and gasses called a nebula. When parts of it collapse on itself, a protostar is born 2)​ The core contracts and heats overtime due to the collapse from gravity. When it reaches a critical temperature, nuclear fusion begins and the star produces energy so it can grow. This phase is called a main sequence 3)​ Eventually the star will die depending on its mass ​ Small - medium mass: when a star runs out of hydrogen, its core contracts and heats, allowing hydrogen fusion to occur in the outer layers, causing the star to expand into a gas giant -​ Eventually it will lose mass and run out of fuel so that the core collapses, leaving a white dwarf  ​ Large initial mass: a massive star becomes a red supergiant, fuses heavier elements until it forms iron, then collapses and explodes in a supernova, leaving behind a neutron star -​ Mass 10 - 30x bigger than sun: explodes into supernova and becomes a neutron star -​ Over 30x bigger: explodes into supernova, leaves a core so massive it becomes a black hole There are 5 types of galaxies: Spiral, Barred spiral, Lenticular, Elliptical, and irregular ​ The milky way is a barred spiral galaxy -​ Part of a galaxy cluster called the local group -​ Our local group is apart of an even bigger collection of galaxies, called a virgo supercluster Evolution of the universe: ​ The big bang theory: states all matter and energy expanded from a hot, dense mass -​ Universe was extremely hot and energy spread very quickly -​ As it cooled, it formed matter which became clumps then eventually stars and galaxies ​ Exploration: space can be explored in many ways such as.. 1)​ Telescopes - there are 2 types -​ Ground based optical telescopes (operate inside earth) -​ Hubble space telescopes (orbit earth) 2)​ Space probe: a robot sent into space in order to explore celestial objects - Ex: the International space station (ISS) that used Canadian parts that include the canadarm2 and DEXTRE (part of m3msat) are examples of space probes 3)​ Astronauts using spacecrafts: a spacecraft is a vehicle designed for travel through space -​ Must be equipped with a rocket to overcome gravity to be launched to its destination Challenges of space travel Benefits of space travel Environmental problems from rocket fuel Data from satellites can help benefit the economy -​ Soot produced from fuel can cause -​ Provide info on marine ozone depletion surveillance, ice monitoring, disaster management…, Health problems with microgravity Improved tech to monitor health -​ Astronauts are not adapted to low oxygen conditions Health problems with radiation Improved consumer goods -​ Exposed to radiation which can lead to cancer Space junk -​ Hit us or objects in an astronauts path