School of Business Introduction to the World Since Palaeolithic PDF

SCHOOL OF BUSINESS Course: Introduction to the World Since Palaeolithic age to Artificial Intelligence Sessions: 8,9-12,13,14 REGIONAL WEBS Hemispheric Interactions: 1000-1500 CE During this era, various regions of Eurasia and Africa became more firmly interc...

SCHOOL OF BUSINESS Course: Introduction to the World Since Palaeolithic age to Artificial Intelligence Sessions: 8,9-12,13,14 REGIONAL WEBS Hemispheric Interactions: 1000-1500 CE During this era, various regions of Eurasia and Africa became more firmly interconnected than at any earlier time in history. The sailing ships that crossed the wide sea basins of the Eastern Hemisphere carried a greater volume and variety of goods than ever before. In fact, the chain of seas extending across the hemisphere– China seas, Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Black Sea, Mediterranean, and Baltic– came to form a single interlocking network of maritime trade. In the same centuries caravan traffic crossed the Inner Asian steppes and the Sahara Desert more frequently. As trade and travel intensified so did cultural exchanges and encounters, presenting local societies with a profusion of new opportunities and dangers. By the time of the transoceanic voyages of the Portuguese and Spanish, the Eastern Hemisphere already constituted a single zone of intercommunication possessing a unified history of its own. China and Europe–Two Centres of Growth In two regions of the Eastern Hemisphere, China and Europe, the era witnessed remarkable growth. China experienced a burst of technological innovation, commercialization, and urbanization, emerging as the largest economy in the world. As China exported its silks and porcelains to other lands and imported quantities of spices from India and Southeast Asia, patterns of production and commerce across the hemisphere were affected. At the opposite end of Eurasia, Western and Central Europe emerged as a new centre of Christian civilization, expanding in agricultural production, population, commerce, and military might. Powerful European states presented a new challenge to Muslim dominance in the Mediterranean world. At the same time Europe was drawn more tightly into the commercial economy and cultural interchange of the hemisphere. 1 The Long Reach of Islam In this era Islamic faith and civilization encompassed extensive new areas of Eurasia and Africa. The continuing spread of Islam was closely connected to the migrations of Turkic conquerors and herding folk and to the growth of Muslim commercial enterprise across the hemisphere. By about 1400 CE Muslim societies spanned the central two-thirds of Afro-Eurasia. New Muslim states and towns were appearing in West Africa, the East African coast, Central Asia, India, and Southeast Asia. Consequently, Muslim merchants, scholars, and a host of long-distance travelers were the principal mediators in the interregional exchange of goods, ideas, and technical innovations. The Age of Mongol Dominance The second half of the era saw extraordinary developments in interregional history. The Mongols under Chinggis Khan created the largest land empire the world had ever seen. Operating from Poland to Korea and Siberia to Indonesia, the Mongol warlords intruded in one way or another on the lives of almost all peoples of Eurasia. The conquests were terrifying, but the stabilizing of Mongol rule led to a century of fertile commercial and cultural interchange across the continent. Eurasian unification, however, had a disastrous consequence in the 14th century–the Black Death and its attendant social impact on Europe, the Islamic world, and probably China. Empires of the Americas In the Western Hemisphere empire building reached an unprecedented scale. The political styles of the Aztec and Inca states were profoundly different. Even so, both enterprises demonstrated that human labour and creative endeavour could be organized on a colossal scale despite the absence of iron technology or wheeled transport. THE COLLAPSE OF SYSTEMS Societal collapse, also referred to as civilizational collapse or systems collapse, denotes the decline of a sophisticated human society marked by the erosion of cultural identity and social complexity as an adaptive system, the breakdown of governance, and the escalation of violence. The potential triggers of a societal collapse encompass natural 2 disasters, warfare, epidemics, famine, economic downturns, population decrease or overpopulation, large-scale migrations, ineffective leadership, and subversion by competing civilizations. A society that has collapsed may regress to a simpler state, merge with a more robust society, or vanish entirely. The potential consequences of such events are vast and can lead to the complete annihilation of a society along with its foundational establishments—such as the incineration of urban centres, a decrease in population, and the disappearance of accumulated knowledge. On the other hand, the term may also be applied in certain contexts to simply denote a shift in governance or leadership. Moreover, the disintegration of the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty in China are not unique occurrences! Several other territories within Eurasia, such as the Gupta Empire in South Asia, also witnessed collapses during this period. These occurrences appear to have had far-reaching implications across a wide geographical area. For instance, despite an overall increase in the global population during that era, substantial population declines were recorded in significant parts of Eurasia between 300 and 600 CE. Numerous civilizations throughout history have faced similar fates, irrespective of their scale or intricacy. Many did not manage to bounce back, like the Western and Eastern Roman Empires, the Mayan civilization, and the civilization of Easter Island. Nevertheless, a handful of these civilizations experienced a resurgence and underwent significant transformations, including China, Greece, and Egypt. Anthropologists, historians, and sociologists have put forth a multitude of theories to elucidate the downfall of civilizations. These theories encompass various factors including environmental degradation, resource depletion, complexities of societal costs, invasions, diseases, weakening social bonds, escalating inequality, exploitative institutions, gradual decline in cognitive capacities, diminishing creativity, and unfortunate circumstances. However, the complete annihilation of a culture is not necessarily predetermined; sometimes, emerging societies post-collapse can be seen as descendants of the old, albeit with a notable decrease in sophistication. 3 Additionally, the impact of a collapsed society, like the Western Roman Empire, can endure long past its demise. The exploration of societal collapse, known as collapsology, is a subject that engages specialists in history, anthropology, sociology, and political science. More recently, experts in Clio-dynamics and complex systems have also worked much on this field. Rise and fall of Empires Empires rise, and then, with some apparent regularity, they fall, and in doing so, they provide historians with one of their most intriguing questions: What causes the collapse of these once-mighty structures? In China, the Han dynasty empire came to an end in 220 C.E.; the traditional date for the final disintegration of the Roman Empire is 476 C.E., although a process of decline had been under way for several centuries. In the Roman case, however, only the western half of the empire collapsed, while the eastern part, subsequently known as the Byzantine Empire, maintained the tradition of imperial Rome for another thousand years. Despite this difference, a few common factors have been associated with the end of these imperial states. At one level, they simply got too big, too overextended, and too expensive to be sustained by the available resources, and no fundamental technological breakthrough was available to enlarge these resources. Furthermore, the growth of large landowning families with huge estates enabled them to avoid paying taxes, turned free peasants into impoverished tenant farmers, and diminished the authority of the central government. In China, such conditions led to a major peasant revolt, known as the Yellow Turban Rebellion, in 184 C.E. Rivalry among elite factions created instability in both empires and eroded imperial authority. In China, persistent tension between castrated court officials (eunuchs) loyal to the emperor and Confucian-educated scholar-bureaucrats weakened the state. In the Roman Empire between 235 and 284 C.E., some twenty-six individuals claimed the title of Roman emperor, only one of whom died of natural causes. In addition, epidemic disease ravaged both societies. The population of the Roman Empire declined by 25 percent in the two centuries following 250 C.E., a demographic disaster 4 that meant diminished production, less revenue for the state, and fewer men available for the defence of the empire’s long frontiers. To these mounting internal problems was added a growing threat from nomadic or semi-agricultural peoples occupying the frontier regions of both empires. The Chinese had long developed various ways of dealing with the Xiongnu and other nomadic people to the north—building the Great Wall to keep them out, offering them trading opportunities at border markets, buying them off with lavish gifts, contracting marriage alliances with nomadic leaders, and conducting periodic military campaigns against them. SYSTEMS RESTRUCTURE Wherever there occurred a collapse, there was subsequently a recovery. The duration of this recovery varied across different regions. Some scholars argue that in many cases, the recovery began almost immediately. They propose that perhaps certain "collapses" were not as drastic as they seemed, and the recoveries were simply reorganizations. In the previous era, the cycle of collapse and recovery was defined by two dominant powers, such as the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty. However, in Afro-Eurasia, this process of reorganization was primarily characterized by a strong centre. Islam emerged in the seventh century, providing crucial trade connections, a shared moral compass, and political stability. These factors facilitated the resurgence of the great east-west commerce along the Silk Road. The Indian Ocean also assumed an increasingly significant role as a vital trading circuit. The flourishing trade opportunities enabled governments to strengthen themselves through new taxation possibilities. At times, political clashes, like the Crusades, were instigated and intensified by conflicts between religious communities. Religion also played a vital role in the recovery and reorganization of the system. Europe lacked a strong, centralized government, but Christianity provided a sense of unity. In Southeast Asia, Buddhism and Hinduism served as networks that supported traders and offered ideological and organizational principles for states. 5 However, the relationship between the state and religion was imprecise and imperfect. In Western Europe, the Christian (Catholic) Pope held considerable authority, but his rule did not extend over vast territories. Furthermore, the Christian world was divided, with the Orthodox Church based in Byzantium alternating between friendly and hostile relations with Catholic powers. The Muslim world also frequently experienced divisions among large and small states. Moreover, certain stateless communities managed to survive and thrive within the reorganized system, notably the Jewish community. Turkish Tanzimat Tanzimat, (Turkish: "Reorganization"), a series of reforms implemented in the Ottoman Empire between 1839 and 1876 during the rule of Sultans Abdülmecid I and Abdülaziz. These reforms, heavily influenced by European concepts, aimed to bring about a fundamental transformation of the empire from the old theocratic-based system to that of a modern nation-state. The Tanzimat reforms introduced many crucial changes, with the main principles outlined in the Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane (1839; "Noble Edict of the Rose Chamber"). This proclamation called for the establishment of new institutions to ensure the safety of life, property, and dignity for all subjects of the empire, regardless of their religion or ethnicity. It also endorsed the creation of a standardized taxation system to eradicate corruption, as well as fairer methods of military enlistment and training. While the pledge of equality for non-Muslims (primarily Christians and Jews) residing in the empire was not always fully realized, a substantial portion of the reforms proposed in the Noble Edict, alongside other measures, were primarily implemented under the guidance of Mustafa Reşid Paşha, who held the position of grand vizier for six terms. The reforms encompassed the establishment of a new secular education system, the restructuring of the army based on the Prussian conscription model, the formation of regional representative assemblies, and the introduction of contemporary commercial and criminal legal codes, heavily inspired by the French 6 legal system. These laws were also enforced by newly established state courts independent of the ʿUlamāʾ, the Islamic religious authorities. The Tanzimat reform movement gradually came to a standstill in the mid-1870s, towards the end of Abdülaziz's rule. Through the Tanzimat reforms aimed at centralizing administration, all legal power was consolidated under the sultan's jurisdiction. Despite this, when Abdülaziz started to misuse his authority and implement revisionist policies, there was limited action that could be taken. Nevertheless, it is important to note that the Tanzimat reforms effectively set the stage for the progressive modernization of the Ottoman Empire. DARK AGE With the collapse of the Roman Empire, a void of power emerged in Europe. The sophisticated political and military systems of Rome, which had ensured stability and protection for centuries, vanished. Consequently, there was a lack of a dominant empire capable of maintaining a standing army to safeguard its people and defend its borders. The Germanic tribes, instrumental in toppling Rome, persisted, causing turmoil in various parts of Europe. In the aftermath, no new empire arose to fill the void left by Rome. The question then arises: can this period be truly deemed a "Dark Age"? The concept of a Dark Age was first introduced by the Tuscan scholar Petrarch in the 1330s. In his reflections on the past, he eloquently expressed: "Among the mistakes, there emerged individuals of extraordinary intellect; their vision remained sharp, undeterred by the prevailing obscurity and thick darkness." Christian scholars, such as Petrarch himself, had been accustomed to employing the age-old imagery of 'light versus darkness' to represent the dichotomy between 'good versus evil'. The potential consequences of such events are immense and can lead to the complete obliteration of a society and its fundamental structures. Urban centres may be reduced to ashes, populations may dwindle, and accumulated knowledge may vanish without a trace. However, in certain contexts, the term may also be used to describe a mere shift in governance or leadership. 7 Furthermore, the disintegration of the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty in China were not isolated incidents. Other territories within Eurasia, like the Gupta Empire in South Asia, also experienced collapses during this era. These occurrences had far- reaching implications across a vast geographical area. For instance, despite an overall increase in the global population during that time, substantial declines in population were observed in significant parts of Eurasia between 300 and 600 CE. In the absence of strong centralized leadership, feudalism developed. Feudalism was a more decentralized type of political, military, and social organization. This system depended on relationships between people with differing status or power. One person pledged to support another person in a particular way, and each received something from the other in return for this support. What you could give depended on your status and wealth. For example, a knight might pledge to fight when needed in exchange for land from the king. A relationship like this was typically formalized in writing. This was called a "feudal contract" and made clear the obligations of everyone to the other. These knights would then make similar agreements with people who were lower on the social ladder than they were. These types of arrangements, or symbiotic relationships, proved to be beneficial to all people, even if some benefitted more than others. Was there a Dark Age Outside of Europe? There is a lot of evidence that could be used to refute the idea that some or all of the European Middle Ages was a "Dark Age." What about the rest of the world? Is there evidence that other societies experienced a "Dark Age" at this time? In China, the "Dark Ages" didn't really exist at all, as previously China was in a state of disarray after the end of the Han dynasty in 220 CE. Because of the fall of this dynasty, trade along the Silk Road trade networks suffered. There were no longer large empires to maintain the roads and no large army to help protect merchants and travellers. It wasn't until the Tang dynasty rose to power in the early seventh century CE that prolonged stability returned to China and the Silk Roads. Trade along these networks also benefited from the expansion of the Muslim empire in the Middle East. 8 The Tang Empire lasted almost 300 years. During this time the Chinese expanded their territory, maintained the roads and canals that were necessary for trade, and the population soared. The Song dynasty (960–1279 CE) rose to power after the demise of the Tang. While the Song emperors ruled over a smaller land area, the empire still became very wealthy. During this time the Chinese population doubled thanks to agricultural improvements including the cultivation of a new strain of rice. It was also during the reign of the Tang and Song that the Chinese went on an inventing spree: gunpowder, advances in printing, the magnetic compass, and paper money. International trade flourished. Internally, China had a stable government with well-trained bureaucrats. However, even with all these accomplishments, the Song could not keep—as John Green would say, "wait for it"—the Mongols out of China. The Mongols had plagued the northern borders of China for many years. Chinggis Khan organized raids and eventually took monetary payoffs from the Chinese to stop attacking them. Chinggis never fulfilled his goal of conquering China; however, in 1279 CE his grandson Kublai Khan finally achieved this goal. Once Kublai Khan conquered all of China, he decided to govern from China. He established a new Mongolian Chinese dynasty called the Yuan (1271–1368 CE). During this period, a Mongol leader controlled the area from the Persian Empire to China. This meant that the area along the Silk Road routes was stable and safe. As a result, foreign trade increased, and China became very wealthy, as Chinese products were some of the most sought-after goods in Afro-Eurasia. LAND-BASED EMPIRES A land-based empire is an empire that is primarily based on the control and administration of land and territory. This type of empire often expands through military conquests, as it seeks to gain control over new territories and resources. Land- based empires can be found throughout history and have varied in size, power, and influence. Some examples of land-based empires include the Roman Empire, the Mongol Empire, the British Empire, Mughal Empire, and the Russian Empire. 9 The annals of history are replete with instances of land-based empires, each distinguishing itself in scale, might, and impact on the world stage. The Roman Empire, with its vast territories embracing the Mediterranean, exemplifies the quintessence of such an empire in the ancient world. Similarly, the Mongol Empire, known for its unprecedented expansion across Eurasia under the leadership of Genghis Khan, showcases the nomadic prowess in empire building. The British Empire, though often associated with its naval strength, also constituted a significant land-based empire, with colonies and dominions spanning the globe. The Russian Empire, stretching across Eastern Europe and into Asia, symbolizes another facet of land-based imperial dominance, marked by its vastness and the diversity of its peoples and landscapes. These empires, among others, underscore the diverse manifestations and enduring legacy of land-based imperialism throughout human history. Land-based empires are commonly identified by their centralized governance, where a dominant ruler or ruling body holds authority, and a structure of officials and administrators oversees the management of territories and populations. Such empires typically boast a formidable military force, vital for safeguarding their borders and pursuing territorial expansion. Moreover, land-based empires are known for fostering cultural exchange and amalgamation. As the diverse territories and peoples within the empire intersect, they engage in the exchange of ideas, technologies, and cultural customs, further enhancing their collective heritage. Expansionism Historically, terrestrial empires have frequently pursued enlargement through martial conquests, driven by a desire to assert dominance over new territories and tap into their abundant resources. This expansionist agenda is not solely reliant on the brute force of military might but is often complemented by strategic diplomacy and the cultivation of trade relationships. Furthermore, some empires opt for the path of colonization, laying the foundations of colonies or settlements within uncharted territories and thereby extending their sphere of influence and control. 10 The motivations fuelling the expansion of empires are multifaceted, encompassing economic ambitions, strategic calculations, and ideological aspirations. For instance, an empire's quest for expansion could be rooted in the pursuit of critical resources - be it minerals, arable land, or human labour - or in the aim to secure vital trade routes and markets, thereby bolstering its economic stature. Strategic considerations also play a pivotal role, as empires strive to safeguard their interests, fortify their defences, and pre-empt potential threats from rival powers. Moreover, ideological dynamics cannot be overlooked; the conviction in the supremacy of one's culture, coupled with the zeal to disseminate certain ideologies or religious beliefs, often propels empires to widen their horizons. In essence, the expansion of empires is a complex phenomenon, underpinned by a confluence of economic, strategic, and ideological factors, each contributing to the historical tapestry of global imperialism. Gunpowder Empires The "Gunpowder Empires" were a distinguished group of three powerful empires that rose to prominence during the late medieval and early modern eras. Renowned for their adept utilization of gunpowder weaponry as well as their significant cultural and technological advancements, these empires encompass: The Ottoman Empire: a formidable Muslim realm which governed an extensive domain spanning across Europe, Asia, and Africa for over six centuries, from the 13th to the 20th century, stood out for its adept deployment of artillery and intricately structured governmental and administrative mechanisms. The Safavid Empire: a mighty Persian realm that governed regions of present-day Iran and Iraq between the early 16th and mid-18th centuries, distinguished itself through its adept deployment of artillery and remarkable cultural accomplishments. Among these achievements was the establishment of a unique Safavid artistic and architectural style. The Mughal Empire: a Muslim dynasty that reigned over a vast expanse encompassing regions of present-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh between the 16th and 19th centuries, stands out for its strategic deployment of artillery and myriad 11 cultural accomplishments. Among its most renowned legacies are the majestic Taj Mahal and the evolution of a unique Mughal aesthetic in art and architecture. During the nascent era of gunpowder armaments, mastering this sophisticated technology was paramount; an empire necessitated a substantial, skilled populace for casting metal components of weapons and a reservoir of resources for gunpowder production. Equally crucial was the investment of time and wealth in training soldiers in the art of gunpowder weaponry, a luxury exclusive to larger empires. Nonetheless, even more diminutive realms such as the Tokugawa Shogunate thrived thanks to their adept utilization of gunpowder armaments, underscoring the pivotal role of meticulous training and strategic deployment in achieving military success. OLD WIDE WEBS The pre-modern trade system operated without a clear hegemon, as all participants engaged in it on relatively equal terms. The system thrived on the lucrative trades of silk from China and spices from Southeast Asia, such as pepper, clove, cinnamon, camphor, and nutmeg. Additionally, hundreds of other commodities were exchanged within this system, including gold, copper, diamonds, ivory, fur, honey, wax, glass, wine, and various fruits. Moreover, a wide range of manufactured goods made from leather, brass, copper, wool, cotton, glass, and iron were also traded. The system facilitated the exchange of animals, such as horses, camels, hunting dogs, as well as exotic birds and mammals. Beyond the exchange of material goods, this system also fostered the interchange of knowledge and technologies, thus contributing to both the intellectual and material development of this expansive region. The Silk Road, a vast network of land and sea routes, was studded with numerous significant cities, ports, and trading posts. Even before Europeans embarked on their journeys of discovery in the 15th century, international trade thrived thanks to the Silk Road, which connected eight distinct geographic regions. These regions included: a. The Persian Gulf b. The China Sea c. Southeast Asia d. The Arabian Sea 12  e. North Africa f. The Eastern Mediterranean g. Western Europe a. The Persian Gulf The unification of the global networks perhaps began with the emergence of Islam. Approximately a century after the passing of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 AD the Abbasid Caliphate governed a vast expanse of land. This territory stretched from Spain in the west, across North Africa, and reaching Pakistan in the east. Strategically situated at the core of this global trade hub was Baghdad, the capital city. Positioned for easy accessibility to the Persian Gulf, the Mediterranean Sea, and the northern route of the Silk Road, Baghdad blossomed into the world's most significant centre for scholarship. The scholarly community there was renowned as the "House of Wisdom," attracting intellectuals from Afro-Eurasia to converge, share ancient wisdom, and foster innovative ideas. Subsequently, in 1258, Baghdad fell to the Mongol invasion, marking the conclusion of a distinctive era of intellectual advancement for humanity. b. China Sea At the heart of global trade and commerce during ancient times stood China, an empire that essentially held the keys to the prosperity of the Silk and Spice Routes. Dominating the trade in these highly coveted goods, China became the focal point for merchants far and wide, all eager to gain access to its vast markets and luxurious products. It was within this context that Chinggis Khan's grandson, Kublai Khan, ascended to a position of monumental influence, marking a pivotal moment in history by founding the Yuan Dynasty in 1271. Kublai Khan's vision extended far beyond the Mongolian steppes of Karakorum, his ancestral home. With strategic foresight, he relocated the capital to Beijing, a city that would not only serve as the political heart of the dynasty but as a nexus for trade and commerce. This move was instrumental in enhancing China's connectivity with the world. Beijing became the epicentre from which roads and trade routes stretched out like the spokes of a wheel to vital port cities such as Hangchow, Zaytun (present-day Quanzhou), and Canton (now known as Guangzhou). 13 These cities, renowned for their production of silk and porcelain, stood as bastions of Chinese craftsmanship and ingenuity. They also acted as the primary gateways for the maritime spice trade route that passed through Palembang, weaving China into the global tapestry of commerce even more tightly. Through these strategic moves and the inherent value of its trade goods, China not only solidified its position as a dominant economic power but also facilitated a cultural exchange that would resonate through the ages, underpinning the global significance of the Silk and Spice Routes. c. India and Southeast Asia Starting in the seventh century, the port city of Palembang had been the main connection point between the Chinese Sea and Calicut in the Indian Ocean. It managed the flow of spices until the fourteenth century. At that time, Malacca had been a quiet fishing village until China used it as a strategic location for its massive treasure fleets, causing the decline of Palembang. Trade in Southeast Asia consisted of Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist trading blocks that continued functioning after the Chinese withdrew. None of these groups attempted to dominate the region. They were simply more interested in trade than in power. d. The Arabian Sea If you engaged in trade routes spanning the Red Sea, East Africa, the Arabian Sea, the Persian Gulf, and Southeast Asia, Muscat would have been a significant stop for you and your merchandise. The naturally sheltered harbour in Muscat served as the primary trading hub in the Arabian Sea. Though various states vied for control over this city, no single state held sway over the entire Arabian Sea region. Instead, multiple states governed strategic trading hubs. One of these crucial hubs was the Swahili- speaking port of Zanzibar, acting as the primary gateway from East Africa. Here, commodities such as gold, ivory, and enslaved individuals from deep within Central Africa were exchanged. Zanzibar was also the starting point for Vasco Da Gama's historic voyage to India in 1498, facilitated by a Muslim merchant who safely guided him to Calicut. 14  e. North Africa Cairo and Alexandria stood out as the main economic hubs in North Africa. The trans- Saharan trade route, although distinct from the Silk Road, played a significant role in supplying gold, enslaved individuals, and iron to the trading dynamics of the era. Timbuktu, located at the western terminus of the trans-Saharan route, strategically linked to a vast commercial network in West Africa. Consequently, Mansa Musa, the ruler of Mali based in Timbuktu (1280-1337), emerged as one of the wealthiest individuals globally. On the eastern front, Egypt extended to the Red Sea, reaching Jeddah. This harbour served as the principal gateway for Muslim pilgrims embarking on the Hajj to Mecca. The millions of pilgrims arriving from various parts of the Muslim world not only fuelled Jeddah's economy but also enriched its status as a thriving multicultural trading hub. Jeddah effectively bridged the gap between the Arabian Sea and Alexandria on the Mediterranean coastline. f. The Eastern Mediterranean Since the dawn of the twelfth century, the vibrant commercial rivalry that blossomed between the illustrious maritime republics of Genoa and Venice often escalated into full-blown conflicts that echoed throughout the seas. Yet, amid these tumultuous times, these republics served as the pulsating heart of trade across the Mediterranean Sea, intricately linking all its bustling entrepôts in a network of wealth and exchange that was unrivalled in its time. At the epicentre of this intricate web of commerce stood Constantinople, now known as Istanbul, a jewel in the crown of the Mediterranean. As the resplendent capital of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople was renowned far and wide not only for its immense wealth and formidable power but also, and perhaps most significantly, for its unparalleled strategic location. Poised majestically at the crossroads of continents, it served as the gateway between Asia and Europe, and the linchpin connecting the azure waters of the Mediterranean to the enigmatic depths of the Black Sea. The city's artisans were celebrated for their exquisite craftsmanship, producing fine brocades and luxurious cloths woven from threads of silk and gold, which were coveted across the known world. This thriving metropolis also served as the vital link 15 between the Black Sea and the port of Kaffa, marking the western terminus of the northern passage that stretched across the continents. In their quest for dominance and wealth, both Genoans and Venetians turned their gaze towards Kaffa, engaging in trade with Mongol merchants that transformed this city into a bustling hub of commerce. However, it was their involvement in the trade of human lives that left an indelible mark on history. Kaffa became infamous as the largest slave market in Europe, a place where the lives of countless Russian and Ukrainian individuals were bartered away, a dark testament to the complex legacy of these maritime republics. g. Western Europe Europeans perceived the expansive nature of the Abbasid Caliphate as a threat to Christendom (the Christian world). In the eleventh century, Pope Urban II had launched the Crusades to regain Christian control of the Holy Land. Although they failed, the Crusades had helped reopen a limited trade between Europe and the Muslim world—with the republics of Genoa and Venice as intermediaries. At the same time, these two cities connected the Mediterranean trade with Western Europe by bringing their trade northwards to Champagne (France) and Flanders (Belgium). These two regions celebrated half a dozen annual "fairs" where products were protected, and merchants had access to credit and currency exchange. Merchants came from all over Europe, including England and Scandinavia. Columbian Exchange The transformation began with Columbus’ expedition in 1492, marking the inception of the "Columbian Exchange," as dubbed by historian Alfred Crosby. The interconnection of the two worlds led to a significant exchange of crops and animals. For the first time, horses and cows were introduced to the Americas, while tomatoes and potatoes made their way from the Americas to Europe. Cassava, now a prominent crop in sub-Saharan Africa, originated from the Americas. This exchange also spurred mass migration. Europeans willingly relocated to the Americas, while many Africans were forcibly enslaved and transported there. 16 Diseases also traversed continents; previously unheard-of Afro-Eurasian illnesses like smallpox, malaria, and cholera wreaked havoc in the Americas, claiming millions of lives in the ensuing century. These exchanges not only transformed human existence but also had a profound impact on all life on Earth. Crosby suggested that the transfer of plant and animal species may have led to the extinction of more species in the last four hundred years than the natural processes of evolution would typically cause in a million years. As new markets and products came into the world economy, new patterns of production, distribution, consumption, and trade also emerged. For example, the rise of plantation farming and cash crops pretty much re-invented the economy. These patterns changed the social and economic organization of the Americas. This included the rise of the Atlantic slave trade and other labour systems. The Columbian Exchange also had some unintentional but devastating results due to the transfer of diseases. Horrific epidemics, some far worse than the Black Death in both their severity and lasting effects, were enabled by exchange. In the Americas, in particular, millions died. These epidemics resulted in massive demographic (population) shifts. This in turn affected the environment and economic systems. The transfer of plants and animals also affected the environment by introducing new species that competed with and sometimes displaced native plants. 17  THE TRANSATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE The transatlantic slave trade was a significant part of the global slave trade system, responsible for transporting between 10 and 12 million enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas during the period spanning from the 16 th to the 19th century. This trade route was the middle leg of the triangular trade network, where goods such as arms, textiles, and wine were sent from Europe to Africa, enslaved individuals were then taken from Africa to the Americas, and finally, products like sugar and coffee were brought from the Americas back to Europe. How it all started? By the 1480s, Portuguese ships had already begun transporting Africans to be used as enslaved labourers on the sugar plantations in the Cape Verde and Madeira islands in the eastern Atlantic. Spanish conquistadors also brought enslaved Africans to the Caribbean starting in 1502, but Portuguese merchants-maintained control over the transatlantic slave trade for another 150 years, operating from their bases in the Congo-Angola region along the West African coast. During parts of the 1600s, the Dutch emerged as the leading traders of enslaved people, while in the following century, English and French merchants collectively controlled approximately half of the transatlantic slave trade, with a significant portion of their human captives originating from West Africa between the Senegal and Niger rivers. In 1713, a pact between Spain and Britain awarded the British exclusive rights to supply enslaved individuals to the Spanish colonies. According to the Asiento de negros agreement, Britain was authorized to deliver 4,800 enslaved Africans annually to these colonies for a period of 30 years. The responsibility for fulfilling this supply was entrusted to the South Sea Company, in which Queen Anne of Britain owned approximately 22.5 percent of the shares. The slave trade in Africa had dire consequences. It created economic motivations for warlords and tribes to participate in the trafficking of enslaved individuals, fostering lawlessness and brutality. The resulting depopulation and constant fear of being 18 captured hindered economic and agricultural progress in large parts of western Africa. A significant portion of those enslaved were women of childbearing age and young men who would typically be establishing families. The European slave traders often abandoned the elderly, disabled, and other dependent individuals who could contribute the least to the economic prosperity of their communities. The Atlantic Passage The Atlantic passage, also known as the Middle Passage, primarily led to destinations such as Brazil or islands in the Caribbean. This route was infamous for its extreme cruelty and the deplorable living conditions on the slave ships. These vessels were excessively overcrowded and lacked basic sanitation, forcing hundreds of Africans to endure the cramped and unsanitary conditions below deck. The journey covered approximately 5,000 miles (8,000 km) and could last anywhere from a few weeks to several months. Atrocities and sexual abuse of the enslaved captives were widespread, although their monetary value as slaves perhaps mitigated such treatment. Ship captains could not ignore the health of their human cargo, because they were paid only for enslaved persons delivered alive. Moreover, the death rates among the European captains and crew engaged in the trade of enslaved people were at least as high as those among their captives on the Middle Passage. In an infamous incident on the slave ship Zong in 1781, when both Africans and crew members were dying of an infectious disease, Capt. Luke Collingwood, hoping to stop the disease, ordered that more than 130 Africans be thrown overboard. He then filed an insurance claim on the value of the murdered enslaved persons. Occasionally, the African captives successfully revolted and took over the ships. The most famous such incident occurred when in 1839 a slave named Joseph Cinqué led a mutiny of 53 illegally purchased enslaved people on the Spanish slave ship Amistad, killing the captain and two members of the crew. The U.S. Supreme Court eventually ordered the Africans to be returned to their homes. 19 Banning of the enslavement During the tumultuous period of the American Revolution (1775–83), there emerged a strong sentiment among the colonies in the North of America to halt the further importation of enslaved individuals. Despite this initial impetus, the aftermath of the Revolution saw a significant delay, exceeding two decades, in the enactment of legislation to outlaw this practice. This delay resulted from the Southern states' adamant demands. Nonetheless, when Congress ultimately passed the legislation in 1808, it was met with minimal opposition. However, the enforcement of this law faced challenges, primarily due to its frequent violation by Caribbean smugglers until the Northern blockade of the South in 1861, during the American Civil War, significantly curtailed their activities. In a parallel development, after Great Britain took a momentous step by abolishing slavery across its empire in 1833, it launched a vigilant campaign against the trade of enslaved people across the Atlantic. The British navy played a pivotal role in this crusade, deploying its ships in a determined effort to deter and disrupt slave-trading ventures. Another commendable stride was made by Brazil when it declared the trade of enslaved individuals is illegal in 1850. Nonetheless, the shadow of this nefarious trade lingered, with the smuggling of newly enslaved people into Brazil persisting until the nation took a decisive step towards emancipation in 1888. This series of legislative actions and international efforts marks a significant, albeit gradual, stride toward acknowledging the inhumanity of the trade in enslaved people and laying the groundwork for their emancipation. Abolitionism and its Origin The abolition movement had its origins in the Enlightenment era, where rationalist thinkers criticized slavery for violating the fundamental "rights of man." Concurrently, Quaker and other evangelical religious groups denounced slavery due to its un-Christian nature. By the end of the 18th century, moral opposition to slavery had become widespread, leading to seemingly straightforward victories for antislavery reformers. In Britain, Granville Sharp's legal victory in 1772 established that West Indian planters could not keep slaves in Britain, as slavery contradicted 20 English law. Similarly, in the United States, all states north of Maryland abolished slavery between 1777 and 1804. However, these antislavery sentiments had little impact on the major slaveholding regions such as the vast plantations in the Deep South, West Indies, and South America. In response, British and American abolitionists shifted their focus to these areas in the late 18th century, working towards banning the importation of enslaved Africans into British colonies and the United States. With figures like William Wilberforce and Thomas Clarkson at the forefront, these efforts led to the abolition of the slave trade in British colonies in 1807. The United States followed suit by prohibiting the importation of slaves the same year, although widespread smuggling persisted until around 1862. Antislavery forces then focused their efforts on achieving the liberation of the populations who were still enslaved. Their persistence paid off when slavery was officially abolished in the British West Indies by 1838, followed by the French possessions a decade later. 21