SBI 3U1 Final Exam Review A PDF

Diversity of Living Things [31 marks: 9 MC, 3 TF, 7 Match, 4 F in B, 8 SA] ​ Classification o​ Most general - Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, most specific - Species o​ Know the domains and the difference in their characteristics....

Diversity of Living Things [31 marks: 9 MC, 3 TF, 7 Match, 4 F in B, 8 SA] ​ Classification o​ Most general - Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, most specific - Species o​ Know the domains and the difference in their characteristics. bacteria - (prokaryotic, single celled, cell walls has peptidoglycan autotrophic and heterotrophic and no membrane bound nucleus), archaea (same as bacteria except the cell wall is without peptidoglycan) and Eukarya (eukaryotic, single or multicellular, membrane bound nucleus, split into four major kingdoms) ​ Kingdom Plantae o​ green algae (found on edges of pond and lakes and does not undergo alternation of generations), Mosses (does not have seeds, non vascular meaning shorts, gametophyte is the dominant generations and sperm and eggs are produced in separate structures), Ferns (has vascular tissue meaning it is taller and sporophyte is the dominant generation and seedless), Seed plants (vascular and contains naked seeds, seeds=plant embryos, gametes live in the cones, pollen are small male gametophytes), Flowering Plants (encloses seeds - insides an ovary, reproductive structures are flowers, flowers are designed to attract animals and insects to pollinate and disperse seeds ) o​ diploid Sporophyte (produces spores, can develop tough coat that enables them to persist in unfavourable conditions) vs haploid Gametophyte generations (produces egg and sperm known as gametes, they are haploid so they fuse with another gamete to form a zygote) ​ Kingdom Fungi o​ cell walls is made up of chitin o​ mostly multicellular but can be unicellular o​ breaks down organic material into nutrients. ​ Kingdom Protista o​ Know the general characteristics for this group [junk drawer]  o​ cell wall has cellulose o​ heterotrophic and autotrophic o​ Amoeba, Paramecium o​ Methods of Movement [flagella, cilia, pseudopodia] o​ Can be animal, plant and fungi like ​ Kingdom Animalia o​ (blastopore the mouth is the first opening of digestive tract) - protostome vs (blastopore the Anus is the first opening of digestive tract) deuterostome, o​ there are three types of symmetry ( asymmetrical - no distinctive shape, radial symmetry - Cylindrical, body parts arranged around central axis, Lack a head and have no real front or back end, bilateral symmetry - mirror image of the right and left sides) ​ Bacteria o​ Know the methods of reproduction both sexual [conjugation - two organisms exchange genetic material through direct contact, typically via a bridge-like connection, to increase genetic diversity, transduction - Occurs when DNA is transferred for one bacterium to another via bacteriophages transformation - bacteria picks up free floating DNA and incorporates it into their own genome] and asexual [binary fission - their genetic material (DNA/RNA) is duplicate and split between the two daughter cells] o​ Types of bacteria and their shapes [cocci - spherical, bacilli - rod shaped, spirillum - spiral shaped] Diplo - pair, strepto - linear chain and staphlo - grape like cluster ​ Viruses o​ Replication methods o​ Lytic - Attachment - Virus bind with the host cells DNA, Injection - viral DNA/RNA inject itself in the host cell DNA, Synthesis - viral nucleic acid injects itself into the host cell taking it over forcing it to make copies of the viral nucleic acid and protein, Assembly - new virus particles start assemble, lysic - the host cell burst and new virus cell infect the other cells  o​ Lysogenic Cycle - same as lytic cycle but has 2 extra step in between injection and synthesis which are the dormant phase - the host cell makes copies of its DNA & Viral DNA, Stimuli - Stressors, climate change and temperature change that triggers the lytic cycle again ​ Know how cells went from prokaryotic to eukaryotic…know the theories [infolding - inward folding of membrane to create membrane bound organelles , endosymbiosis - Eukaryotic cell evolved when a prokaryotic cell engulfed another prokaryotic cell creating a symbiotic relationship these engulfed cells later evolved into a eukaryotic cell with organelles, mitochondria and cytoplasm are engulf prokaryotic cells] ​ Determining actual size and total magnification Genetics [32 marks: 11 MC, 4 TF, 5 Match, 1 F in B, 1 Dia, 10 SA] ​ Know punnett squares [dihybrid, incomplete - blended traits between the two heterozygous individuals individual /codominance - both allele are being expressed at the exact same time, multiple alleles - uses the different blood types (ii - recessive) , sex-linked] and the P gen (true breeding), F1 gen - first generation of offsprings, F2 gen - second generation of offsprings. ​ Law of Independent Assortment states that alleles of different genes are distributed to gametes independently of one another meaning the inheritance of one trait does not infect the inheritance of another trait ​ Know mitosis and meiosis. o​ Stages -Mitosis o​ Prophase: Chromosomes condense, the nuclear membrane disappears, and the spindle fibres form. o​ Metaphase : Chromosomes align in the middle of the cell o​ Anaphase : Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles. o​ Telophase : The nuclear membrane reforms  o​ | o​ Cytokinesis:, divides the cytoplasm into 2 identical daughter cells o​ Meiosis I: Homologous chromosomes separate. o​ Prophase I: Crossing over occurs, exchanging genetic material. o​ Metaphase I: Homologous pairs align in the middle of the cell. o​ Anaphase I: Homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles. o​ Telophase I: Two haploid cells form. o​ Prophase II : Chromosomes again , the nuclear membrane disappears, and the spindle fibres appear o​ Metaphase II: Chromosomes align in the middle of the cell o​ Anaphase II: Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles. o​ Telophase II: The nuclear membrane reforms around each set of chromosomes o​ Cytokinesis:, divides the cytoplasm into four genetically unique haploid cells. o​ result - [mitosis - 2 diploid identical daughter cells or meiosis 4 genetically unique haploid cells) o​ Similarities - Both mitosis and meiosis involve the division of a parent cell, follow similar stages (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase), and use spindle fibers to separate chromosomes o​ differences - meiosis has 2 cell division while mitosis has 1, meiosis creates 4 genetically unique haploid cells while mitosis creates 2 identical daughter diploid cells, and mitosis produces somatic cells while meiosis produces gametes cells. There is only crossing over in meiosis and not in mitosis. also meiosis 1 has homologous chromosome pair while mitosis/meiosis 2 does not. ​ Genes - portion of the DNA that codes, alleles - version of a gene, heterozygous - each allele is different (Pp), homozygous - Both alleles are the same (PP), phenotype - physical appearance of an organism (ex. Purple), genotype - genetic makeup of an organism (ex. Pp) ​ Know what a nondisjunction disorder is - when something happens in meiosis and there is an error in distribution of chromosomes. you could have  one extra chromosome which is common or you could have one less chromosome which is uncommon ​ GMO positives and negatives - genetically modified organisms can increase crop yields and resistance to pests, but they may lead to environmental concerns and health risks; the positive impact focuses on improved agricultural productivity, while the negative aspect involves potential ecological disruption and unintended consequences on human health. ​ Gel electrophoresis, restriction enzymes - Gel electrophoresis is a technique that separates DNA fragments by size using an electric field, while restriction enzymes are proteins that cut DNA at specific sequences to produce these fragments also uses DNA ligages to paste them back together ​ Know the nitrogen bases (rungs of the ladder) and their pairing - adenine and thymine and guanine and cytosine & nucleotide structure- nucleotides consist of the nitrogenous bases sugar phosphate backbone and pentose sugar. Evolution [27 marks: 12 MC, 3 TF, 4 Match, 1 Dia, 7 SA] ​ [ fossils - evidence of extinction, geographic distribution - closely related means different habitats locally while distantly related has the similar habitats globally, comparative anatomy homologous ( - common ancestor/structure but does not function the same, analogous - similar function no common ancestor/different structures,vestigial - common ancestor except important function in ne species but on in the other) , comparative embryology - embryos of closely related organism have similar stages, molecular biology - sequencing genes/matching genes shows evidence of relatedness of species] ​ [ divergent evolution - evolution from a common ancestor that result in diverse species adapt to different environment, natural selection - process by which individual with inherited characteristic survives the environment, gene pool- all the alleles in the individuals that make up a population, genetic drift - is random also changes in gene pool due to chance and is better in small population. it has two type bottleneck and founder effect, founder effect bottleneck effect - individual leave to start a new population , - a population is destroyed due to natural disasters , mimicry - when one species mimics and evolves to resemble another model may or may not be  closely related species there are two type batesian - harmless species evolves to mimic a harmful species and mullerian - two harmful species mimic each clade other, - A clade is a group of organisms that includes an ancestor and all its descendants, representing a single branch on the phylogenetic tree, cumulative selection - process by which small, advantageous changes accumulate over time, leading to significant evolutionary adaptations] ​ Darwin - that natural selection drives evolution, where organisms with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing those traits to future generations. Lyell - Popularized and expanded hutton idea of uniformitarianism - which explain that the earth took over a million years to develop & Lamarck - lamarck came up with the three principle use and disuse, inheritance of acquired characteristics and tendency towards perfection but the inheritance of acquired characteristic failed ​ Know the reproductive barrier types. hybrid infertility - not able to give birth, hybrid inviability - dies early in fetal development or early in life, reproductive/Isolation Barriers- inability to reproduce due to some physical or behavioral behaviour, geographic isolation - earth constantly change due to plate tectonic which can cause physically separate, habitat isolation - when organism adapt to different niches in same area and cannot interbreed, temporal Isolation- different breeding season/period, Behavioral Isolation - different courtship behavior can prevent mating, Mechanical Isolation - incompatible reproductive structure, Gamete Isolation - Sperm & egg have molecular markers or protein that are incompatible. ​ Types of selection [ stabilizing - average or intermediate traits, directional - one extreme phenotype is favored over others, leading to a shift in the population's traits in one direction over time , disruptive - extreme values of a trait are favored over intermediate values, leading to the development of two distinct phenotypes within a population ] ​ Concept of species [morphological - organism are classified based on structure, biological - population/group whose member bread with on another and produce fertile offspring, modern - combination of biological and morphological specie concepts] ​ Mass Extinction & what happens after and rates of extinction now vs before. - Mass extinctions are events where a large number of species rapidly die out, often followed by adaptive radiation as surviving species diversify, while  current extinction rates are significantly higher than natural background rates due to human activities. ​ Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium conditions - random mating, large population, no gene flow, no mutation, no natural selection Animal Systems [30 marks: 10 MC, 6 TF, 3 Match, 3 F in B, 8 Dia] ​ Digestive System o​ Nutrients [carbohydrates] - o​ Know digestive system diagrams. o​ Know structures and functions [constipation] Mouth and Esophagus: Chewing and swallowing initiate digestion and Poor hydration or inadequate fiber intake here can lead to harder stools. Stomach: Breaks down food into chyme. Delayed gastric emptying (gastroparesis) can contribute to constipation. Small Intestine: Absorbs nutrients and While not directly related to stool formation, issues in nutrient absorption can impact bowel habits. Large Intestine (Colon): Main site of water absorption and If stool remains in the colon too long, excess water is absorbed, leading to hard, dry stools. Rectum: Stores stool until a bowel movement occurs and If rectal muscles are not properly coordinated, stool may not be expelled effectively Anal Sphincter: Controls the release of stool and Dysfunctional sphincter muscles can make defecation difficult. What is Peristalsis? - the involuntary constriction and relaxation of the muscles of the intestine or another canal, creating wave-like movements that push the contents of the canal forward. can lead to constipation if slow o​ Enzymes [bile, amylase, pepsin] - Bile is not an enzyme but aids in fat digestion by emulsifying lipids, amylase is an enzyme that breaks down starch into simpler sugars, and pepsin is an enzyme that digests proteins into smaller peptides in the stomach. ​ Circulatory System o​ Blood [parts & their structure and function] - Plasma - transports fatty acids and vitamins, and fight viral and bacterial infections  Platelets - Aid in blood clotting to prevent bleeding and repair damaged blood vessels. White blood cells - Defend the body against infections, fight pathogens, and play a role in immune system regulation. Red blood cells - Carry oxygen from the lungs to tissues and transport carbon dioxide back to the lungs for exhalation. o​ Open vs Closed systems. - An open circulatory system is when the blood is not contained within the vessels and the tubular heart pumps blood through the vessel into the songy chamber called sinuses. while in a closed circulatory system the book is contain behind the vessel walls, nutrient, waste and O2 diffuse through the thin walls of the vessel and heat pumps more efficiently due to the fact that it is under high pressure o​ Blood flow through the heart and body. o​ Vessel Structures [Arteries and veins]. - Arteries - Structure - thick walls, blood under high pressure, Function - filter blood away from the heart and Pressure ensures blood flow in only one direction, Veins - Structure - Thin walls and blood under very little pressure , Function - filter blood to the heart and Valves and skeletal muscle ensure blood flow in only one direction o​ Lymphatic system - The lymphatic system collects the fluid left by the capillaries called lymph and drains it. if it is not drain it can cause edema (swelling) o​ Know the structures of the heart and be able to label the diagram. ​ Respiratory System o​ Know the structure and function of the system. Respiratory System Functions and Structure Structure Trachea is ring shaped due to circular shaped rings of cartilage that help maintains shape Bronchus covered by smooth muscle that contract and relax to control size of airways Alveoli grapelike clusters. maximizes surface area for gas exchange Diaphragm large dome shaped sheet of muscle that forms the bottom wall of the chest cavity Nose Hair/Mucus filter bacteria and dirt Cilia in lungs help to trap and move dust, mucus, and other particles out of the respiratory tract, protecting the airways from infection and irritation. o​ Sites of gas exchange, how it works. - Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli of the lungs, where oxygen diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses out, facilitated by the thin walls of the alveoli and surrounding capillaries. o​ What impacts the rate of respiration? - Respiration rates may increase with fever, illness, and other medical conditions. Plants [25 marks: 8 MC, 4 TF, 1 Match, 2 F in B, 4 Dia, 6 SA] ​ Know the structures and tissues of plants and their functions [root, leaves, stem, meristem, ground, vascular, dermal] Roots Function: Anchor the plant in the soil, Absorb water and minerals and Store food and nutrients (e.g., starch in carrots or beets). Structure: Fibrous Root System: Fibrous root system consists of a mat of thin roots spread out below the soil surface, providing increased exposure to soil nutrients and water. Taproot System: A taproot system is characterized by one large vertical root with many smaller branches. Stem Function: Provides support for leaves and flowers, Transports water, nutrients, and food through vascular tissues and Stores nutrients in some plants (e.g., tubers like potatoes). Structure: Stems are the parts of a plant that support leaves and flowers. Nodes are the points on the stem at which leaves are attached. Internodes are the portions of the stem between nodes. Leaves The main part of the leaf is the blade because it helps with photosynthesis ( that is where all the material and byproducts are stored). A stalk, called a petiole, connects the leaf to the stem. The vein that runs through the petiole and into the blade consists of vascular tissue and support tissue. The venation in the monocots are parallel veins and the dicots are branching veins Flowers Structure: The outermost ring, the sepals, covers and protects the flower bud before the blossom opens. The next ring into the flower is composed of petals. Stamens are the male reproductive organs of a flower. Each stamen consists of a long stalk topped by a sac called an anther. Within the anthers, meiosis produces spores that develop into pollen grains. Each pollen grain is a male gametophyte, consisting of two cells surrounded by a thick protective wall. Pistils are the female reproductive organs of a flower. At the base of each female pistil is an ovary. Inside the ovary are structures called ovules. Ovules contain the female gametophyte. When fertilized, ovules develop into seeds. Leading to the ovary is a narrow structure called the style, which has a sticky tip called the stigma. Seeds Structure: Seed Coat - A tough outer layer that protects the embryo and endosperm Embryo - A miniature root and shoot that will develop into a new plant Endosperm - A nutrient-rich tissue that nourishes the growing embryo Cotyledon - An embryonic leaf that functions in the storage and transfer of nutrients to the embryo Dermal Tissue: The dermal tissue of non-woody organs, such as young roots, consists of one or more layers of cells, known as the epidermis. The epidermis covers and protects all the young leaf parts of the plant. Some epidermis like the ones in the stem and leaves are specialized to secrete waxy cuticles help plants retain water Vascular Tissue: transports water, mineral nutrients, and organic molecules between roots and shoots. Vascular tissue also contributes to the structural support of the plant. Xylem: Transports water/minerals; composed of dead cells like tracheids and vessel elements. Phloem: transports food made in mature leaves to the roots and the parts of the shoot system that don't carry out photosynthesis, such as developing leaves, flowers, and fruits Ground Tissue: Ground tissue fills the spaces between the dermal and vascular tissues. It makes up most of a young, non-woody plant and functions in photosynthesis in the shoot and in storage and support throughout the plant. ​ Water transport throughout the plant. Cohesion adhesion, Root pressure and transpiration pull: help with the flow of water throughout the plants. It first starts with the water being absorbed in by the root and then pushed through the xylem tubes. Then cohesion, which is the tendency to bind with other molecules, helps water ( a very cohesive Molecule) to bind together and go up the tube. Along with cohesion and adhesion is the tendency for unlike molecules to bind together. This causes the water to bind with the cellulose molecule in the xylem cells that help with the upward movement. Then transpiration pull, pulls the water through the xylem tube to the leaf because of the lack of water and once in the leaf the water evaporates and then the cycle starts all over again ​ Know the cross section of the leaf; parts of a flower diagram. ​ Know the various tropisms. Tropisms: Positive vs. Negative Tropisms are slow growth responses that cause parts of a plant to bend or grow toward or away from a stimulus. There are two types of tropisms: Positive tropism: growth toward a stimulus Negative tropism: growth away from a stimulus Types of Tropisms: Thigmotropism (Growth Response to touch): examples: Climbing plants with tendrils that respond by coiling and grasping when they touch rigid objects and Seedlings that bend to avoid obstacles in the soil Phototropism ( Growth towards light): Light is a critically important environmental factor in the life of a plant. Plants can detect and respond to variation in light intensity, direction, and wavelength. The growth of a plant part toward or away from light is an example of phototropism. Gravitropism (Gravity): A plant's growth response to gravity is called gravitropism. Roots have positive gravitropism because they grow in the same direction as the force of gravity, while shoots have negative gravitropism because they grow in the opposite direction to gravity. ​ Know the hormones and how plants deal with stressful environments. Auxins - Promotes cell elongation, root initiation, and secondary growth also is the first hormones discovered Cytokinins - stimulates cell division, delays aging in plants and promotes lateral growth Gibberellins - stimulates stem elongation, seed germination and fruit development Abenic Acid (ABA) - Induces dormancy in seed and buds and closes stomata during water stress Ethene - promotes fruit ripening and leaf shedding ​ Primary & secondary succession, & climax community. Primary succession can occur in a variety of environments, including volcanic landscapes, glacial moraines, and sand dunes. The process of primary succession typically begins with the colonization of the area by pioneer species, such as lichens and mosses, which are able to tolerate the harsh conditions and lack of soil. Ex. Mount St. Helens: After the volcanic eruption in 1980, the area was colonized by pioneer species, such as lichens and mosses, which were able to tolerate the harsh conditions and lack of soil. Secondary succession occurs in areas where soil and vegetation were present before, but were disturbed or damaged. The process of secondary succession typically begins with the colonization of the area by pioneer species, such as annuals and perennials, which are able to grow quickly and tolerate the disturbed conditions. Ex. Algonquin Park: After the forest was logged and burned, the area was colonized by pioneer species, such as annuals and perennials, which were able to grow quickly and tolerate the disturbed conditions. A climax community is characterized by a stable composition of species, and is often considered the final stage of ecological succession. Factors affect climax communities - Climate, Soil composition, Rainfall , Temperature