Individual Variations Chapter 4 PDF

Because learning changes everything.® Chapter 4 Individual Variations Copyright ©2021 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.  Learning Objectives Discuss what intelligence is, how it...

Because learning changes everything.® Chapter 4 Individual Variations Copyright ©2021 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.  Learning Objectives Discuss what intelligence is, how it is measured, theories of multiple intelligences, the neuroscience of intelligence, and some controversies and issues about its use by educators. Describe learning and thinking styles. Characterize the nature of personality and temperament. © McGraw Hill 2  Individual Variations 1 Intelligence. What Is Intelligence? Intelligence Tests. Theories of Multiple Intelligences. The Neuroscience of Intelligence. Controversies and Issues in Intelligence. © McGraw Hill 3  Intelligence Intelligence: Problem-solving skills and the ability to adapt to and learn from experiences. © McGraw Hill 4  Binet Intelligence Tests Mental Age (MA). An individual’s level of mental development relative to others. Intelligence Quotient (IQ). Person’s mental age divided by chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100. Normal Distribution. A symmetrical distribution. Majority of scores fall in the middle of the possible range of scores. Few scores appear in the extremes. © McGraw Hill 5  Figure 4.1: The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill 6  The Wechsler Scales WPPSI-4. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence–Fourth Edition (2 years 6 months to 7 years 3 months). WISC-5. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fifth Edition (ages 6 to 16). WAIS-4. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Fourth Edition. © McGraw Hill 7  Group Intelligence Tests Advantage. More convenient and economical than individual tests. Disadvantages. Examiner cannot establish rapport, determine student’s level of anxiety. Students might not understand instructions or might be distracted by other students. © McGraw Hill 8  Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Students with different triarchic patterns look different in school. Sternberg said few tasks are purely analytic, creative, or practical. Most tasks require some combination of these skills. Wisdom is linked to both practical and academic intelligence. Sternberg’s view that intelligence comes in three main forms: Analytical: involves the ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast. Creative: consists of the ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine. Practical: focuses on the ability to use, apply, implement, and put into practice. © McGraw Hill 9  Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory: Into Practice 1 Cindy always does very well on both standardized and classroom tests and gets good grades in school. However, she does not write original stories well nor would anyone say that she has much common sense. Question: In what form of intelligence is Cindy high? Explain. © McGraw Hill 10  Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory: Into Practice 2 Trent does not do well on standardized tests. His grades are not very high. However, Trent is very imaginative and a wonderful storyteller. Trent’s classmates beg him to read his stories to the class. Trent hopes to be a novelist one day. However, he often turns in work that does not conform to teacher expectations or directions. Question: In what form of intelligence is Trent high? Explain. © McGraw Hill 11  Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory: Into Practice 3 Ken doesn’t do very well in school. However, he is very popular with his peers and has excellent leadership skills. Question: In what form of intelligence is Ken high? Explain. © McGraw Hill 12  Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind Verbal: Ability to think in words and use language to express meaning. Mathematical: Ability to carry out mathematical operations. Spatial: Ability to think three-dimensionally. Bodily-kinesthetic: Ability to manipulate objects and be physically adept. Musical: Sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone. Intrapersonal: Ability to understand oneself and effectively direct one’s life. Interpersonal: Ability to understand and effectively interact with others. Naturalist: Ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural and human-made systems. © McGraw Hill 13  Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind: Theory into Practice 1 Carrie loves to read and write stories. Question: Which of Gardner's eight frames of mind is she displaying when she engages in these activities? Explain. © McGraw Hill 14  Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind: Theory into Practice 2 Jane is an excellent athlete, excelling at soccer, basketball, and baseball. Question: Which of Gardner's eight frames of mind is Jane displaying when she engages in these activities? Explain. © McGraw Hill 15  Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind: Theory into Practice 3 Steve loves to play the piano, trumpet, and drums and is quite good at all of them. Question: Which of Gardner's eight frames of mind is Steve displaying when he engages in these activities? Explain. © McGraw Hill 16  Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind: Theory into Practice 4 Tanesha is a good friend. People often open up to her and tell her things they would not share with other people. She never betrays their trust. Question: Which of Gardner's eight frames of mind is Tanesha displaying when she engages in these activities? Explain. © McGraw Hill 17  Emotional Intelligence According to Salovey and Mayer (1990), emotional intelligence is the ability to: Perceive and express emotion accurately and adaptively. Understand emotion and emotional knowledge. Use feelings to facilitate thought. Manage emotions in oneself and others. © McGraw Hill 18  Enter the Debate Should schools use intelligence tests for placement purposes? Yes. No. When a test is given to a large group, the examiner cannot establish rapport, determine the student’s level of anxiety, and so on. In a large-group testing situation, students might not understand the instructions or might be distracted by other students. © McGraw Hill 19  Do Children Have One Intelligence or Many Intelligences? General intelligence (g) includes abstract reasoning or thinking, the capacity to acquire knowledge, and problem-solving ability. Advocates of the concept of general intelligence point to its success in predicting school and job success. Intelligence tests are moderately correlated with job performance. Individuals with higher scores on tests designed to measure general intelligence tend to get higher-paying, more prestigious jobs. General IQ tests predict only about one-fourth of the variation in job success. Controversy still characterizes whether it is more accurate to conceptualize intelligence as a general ability, specific abilities, or both. © McGraw Hill 20  The Neuroscience of Intelligence Interest in the neuroscience of intelligence has increased. Some experts continue to emphasize that high-level thinking skills involved in intelligence are linked to the prefrontal cortex, which covers the front part of the frontal lobe (Santarnecchi et al., 2015; Sternberg & Sternberg, 2016). However, other researchers recently have found that intelligence is distributed more widely across brain regions (Lee et al., 2012). The most prominent finding from brain-imaging studies is that a distributed neural network involving the frontal and parietal lobes is related to higher intelligence (Margolis et al., 2013) Questions include: Is having a bigger brain linked to higher intelligence? Is intelligence located in certain brain regions? Is the speed at which the brain processes information linked to intelligence? © McGraw Hill 21  Controversies and Issues in Intelligence 1 Nature-nurture issue. Nature refers to an organism’s biological inheritance, nurture to environmental influences. “Nature” proponents claim biological inheritance is the most important influence on development. “Nurture” proponents claim environmental experiences are the most important. © McGraw Hill 22  Controversies and Issues in Intelligence Most experts today agree that the environment also plays an important role in intelligence (Grigorenko et al., 2016; Sternberg 2016 a, b). Positive effects of this early intervention were still evident in the intelligence and achievement of these students when they were 13 and 21 years of age (Ramey et al., 2009). Another argument for the influence of environment on intelligence involves the increasing scores on IQ tests around the world. The worldwide increase in intelligence test scores over a short time frame is called the Flynn effect. One analysis of studies on schooling and intelligence concluded that schooling and intelligence influence each other (Ceci & Williams, 1997). © McGraw Hill 23  Controversies and Issues in Intelligence 2 Many of the early tests of intelligence were culturally biased. Standards for the early tests were almost exclusively based on non- Latinx White, middle-socioeconomic-status children. One potential influence on intelligence test performance is stereotype threat. Stereotype threat: Anxiety regarding whether one’s behavior might confirm a negative stereotype about one’s group (Pennington et al., 2016; Scott & Rodriquez, 2015; Steele & Aronson, 2004; Spencer et al., 2016; Suad Nasir et al., 2016). Culture-fair tests: Intelligence tests that are intended to be free of cultural bias. © McGraw Hill 24  Between-Class Ability Grouping (Tracking) Advantages. Disadvantages. Narrows the range of skill in a Stigmatizes students who are group of students. consigned to low-track classes. Prevents less-able students May have less-experienced from "holding back" more teachers, fewer resources, and talented students. lower expectations. Segregates students by socioeconomic status and ethnicity. © McGraw Hill 25  Within-Class Ability Grouping Involves placing students in two or three groups within a class according to their ability or achievement. © McGraw Hill 26  Individual Variations 2 Learning and Thinking Styles. Impulsive/Reflective Styles. Deep/Surface Styles. Optimistic/Pessimistic Styles. Criticisms of Learning and Thinking Styles. © McGraw Hill 27  Learning and Thinking Styles Impulsive/Reflective Styles. Impulsive/reflective styles, also referred to as conceptual tempo, involve a student’s tendency either to act quickly and impulsively or to take more time to respond and reflect on the accuracy of an answer (Kagan, 1965). Research on impulsivity/reflection shows that reflective students are more likely than impulsive students to do well at the following tasks (Jonassen & Grabowski, 1993): remembering structured information; reading comprehension and text interpretation; and problem solving and decision making. © McGraw Hill 28  Reflective versus Impulsive Thinking Styles Reflective students surpass impulsive students at: Remembering structured information. Reading comprehension. Problem solving and decision making. Goal setting. Setting high standards for performance. © McGraw Hill 29  Learning and Thinking Styles Deep/surface styles involve how students approach learning materials. Students who approach learning with a surface style fail to tie what they are learning into a larger conceptual framework. Deep learners are more likely to actively construct what they learn and give meaning to what they need to remember. Optimistic/Pessimistic Styles Optimistic/pessimistic styles involve having either a positive (optimistic) or negative (pessimistic) outlook on the future. A study of adolescents found that having an optimistic style of thinking predicted a reduction in suicidal ideation for individuals who had experienced negative and potentially traumatic life events (Hirsch et al., 2009). © McGraw Hill 30  Deep versus Surface Learning Styles Deep Learners. Surface Learners. Actively construct knowledge. Are passive learners. Give meaning to material. Fail to tie information to a Are self-motivated. larger framework. Focus on external rewards. © McGraw Hill 31  Optimistic Versus Pessimistic Styles Instilling optimism in children helps to make them more resilient, less likely to become depressed, and more likely to succeed academically. Positive academic outcomes will occur if teachers: Believe they can make a difference in their students’ academic achievement. Trust students and parents to cooperate in this objective. Believe in their ability to overcome problems and be resilient in the face of difficulties. Optimistic/pessimistic styles involve having either positive (optimistic) or negative (pessimistic) expectations for the future. © McGraw Hill 32  Learning and Thinking Styles Criticisms of Learning and Thinking Styles Criticisms have been leveled at the concept of learning and thinking styles. A survey of researchers in the field of learning and thinking styles revealed that the three most common criticisms of these styles involve (1) low reliability of the styles (lack of consistency when they are assessed); (2) low validity of the styles (whether the tests that are used actually measure the styles purportedly being assessed); and (3) confusion in the definitions of styles (Peterson et al., 2009). Two recent research reviews supported these criticisms, finding that scientific support for learning style theories is lacking (Cuevas, 2015; Willingham et al., 2015). © McGraw Hill 33  Criticisms of Learning and Thinking Styles Three most common criticisms involve: Low reliability of the styles. Low validity of the styles. Confusion in the definitions of styles. There is strong evidence that matching instruction to students’ learning styles or preferences does not improve learning. Two recent research reviews supported these criticisms, scientific support for learning style theories is lacking (Cuevas, 2015; Willingham et al., 2015). © McGraw Hill 34  Individual Variations 3 Personality and Temperament. Personality. Temperament. © McGraw Hill 35  Personality versus Temperament Personality. Distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way an individual adapts to the world. Temperament. A person’s behavioral style and characteristic way of responding. © McGraw Hill 36  Figure 4.6: The “Big Five” Personality Factors Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill 37  Concept of Person-Situation Interaction The best way to characterize an individual’s personality is not only in terms of personal traits or characteristics, but also in terms of the situation involved. How calm or anxious are you? Are you outgoing or shy? Are you intellectually oriented? How agreeable are you? How conscientious are you? © McGraw Hill 38  Children’s Temperament Easy child. Slow-to-warm-up child. Positive mood. Low activity level. Establishes regular routines in Somewhat negative. infancy. Low intensity of mood. Adapts easily to new experiences. Difficult child. Reacts negatively and cries frequently. Irregular daily routines. Slow to accept change. © McGraw Hill 39  Rothbart and Bates’ Temperament Dimensions Extraversion/surgency. Includes approach, pleasure, activity, smiling, and laughter. Negative affectivity. Includes fear, frustration, sadness, and discomfort. Effortful control (self-regulation). Study revealed effortful control was a strong predictor of academic success skills in kindergarten children from low-income families. © McGraw Hill 40  Goodness of Fit Match between an individual’s temperament and the environmental demands the individual must cope with. Effortful control, manageability, and agreeableness reduce the effects of adverse environments, whereas negative emotionality increases their effects. © McGraw Hill 41