UK History From 1945 to 1979 PDF

## CM HISTOIRE DU ROYAUME-UNI ### THE UK FROM 1906 TO 2016 #### Part 2: From 1945 to 1979 ### Chapter 1: Minor reforms of the political system #### I/ Political institutions - **Butskellism:** satirical term sometimes used in British politics to refer to this consensus, established in the 1950s a...

## CM HISTOIRE DU ROYAUME-UNI ### THE UK FROM 1906 TO 2016 #### Part 2: From 1945 to 1979 ### Chapter 1: Minor reforms of the political system #### I/ Political institutions - **Butskellism:** satirical term sometimes used in British politics to refer to this consensus, established in the 1950s and associated with the exercise of office as Chancellor of the Exchequer by Rab Butler of the Conservatives and Hugh Gaitskell of Labour. - The Conservatives and Labour were the 2 main parties. Labour won the 1945 elections because it was regarded as best able to deliver the recommendations of the Beveridge report, even though Churchill was very popular. Both parties would be in power in turns with overall majorities. There was a left-wing party and a right-wing party but overall there was a consensus on many policies, mostly social and economic policies, known as the Post-War Consensus. This consensus would disappear in 1979. The Liberal Party was a minor party. In 1988, there was a merge between the old Liberal Party and new small parties called "Social Democratic Party" (SDP) (an alliance) to form the Liberal Democrats. - As for Parliament, the House of Lords had become a second chamber after losing the power to veto bills. This reform was passed under a Liberal government. Labour was also critical. There were even some politicians in the Labour Party that would have liked to abolish the House of Lords altogether but such an idea didn't have a majority support. Under the first majority gov led by Labour PM Clement Attlee, there was a reform about the delay of bills (initially 2 years and then reduced to 1 year for most bills and no change for financial bills). It was called the Salisbury Convention, a kind of custom. When the government introduced a bill based on a commitment made in its manifesto then the House of Lords would not oppose it. The House of Commons represented the people unlike the House of Lords. - In 1958, there was a major reform of the composition of the House of Lords. Until then, almost all Lords were Hereditary Peers, noblemen who passed their seats onto their oldest son. There were also a few Law Lords: senior judges that acted as a Court of Final Appeal in the judicial system. There were 26 Spiritual Lords (archbishops and bishops of the Church of England). As for Hereditary Peers, they were part of the nobility but many of them had little interest in their seats (not attend the House of Lords) and all of them were Conservatives. So the reform had different aims. Under the reform, there would be a new type of members: Life Peers, appointed for the rest of their lives until their death but they couldn't pass their seats onto anyone. They were not ordinary citizens but there were not noblemen either. Most of the time, they were senior politicians (former PMs, former Ministers, businessmen…). The list was drawn up by the PM after consulting the leaders of the opposition parties and then there was a formal approval by the monarch. There would be Life Peers from all parties. There would be women for the first time. As these individuals were appointed, they were expected to attend the House of Lords. As usual, there was no fixed number of members. They became more and more numerous compared to Hereditary Peers. In 1962, women were also admitted as Hereditary Peers. There were no changes as for Law Lords and Spiritual Lords. Life Peers had the same rights as Hereditary Peers within the House. - As for the House of Commons, in 1948, there was another "Representation of the People Act" that abolished university seats and the business vote. So there was only one vote per citizen (no one could vote twice anymore). In 1969, the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18. There were some politicians who intended to reform the electoral system. The majority system is efficient but not fair because one party is over-represented. Those who demanded a reform were the Liberals because they were under-represented. They were ignored most of the time, except in 1977, as Labour had gained the 1974 elections with a very narrow majority that was lost in the following months. A few Labour MPs died. In the following by-elections, other MPs were elected. Callaghan led a minority government and negociated a pact with the Liberals known as the "Lib-Lab Pact". It was not a coalition government (no Liberal ministers). But Liberal MPs were expected to support Labour government so that bills could be passed. In exchange, the Liberals demanded a reform of the electoral system to make it more proportional. There were discussions in Parliament. But there were too many divisions. Overall, both main parties, the Conservatives and Labour, refused to reform a system that enabled them to gain power. There were some Labour MPs that were willing to introduce proportional elections but an overall majority voted in favor of the existed system. So it was an unsuccessful attempt. #### II/ Regional institutions ##### A/ Scotland and Wales - Scotland and Wales were run by British institutions (British government and Parliament). Scotland had its own Minister within the British government, the Secretary of State of Scotland, created at the end of the 19th century. In 1964, the Labour government created a similar Minister for Wales. Scotland and Wales didn't have any autonomy within the UK but they had their own voices in the British government. So these two ministers could voice their needs and concerns. - Sometimes, pieces of legislation were adapted, in particular since the 1707 Treaty of Union between Scotland and England, Scotland had retained its own education and judicial systems. There was also specific legislations to protect the Welsh language in particular in 1967 under Labour. Labour was dominant in Scotland and Wales. There was an increasing North-South divide for economic reasons leading to a political divide. The economic North including Scotland and Wales voted Labour. The Scottish National Party and Plaid Cymru, created in interwar years, were minor parties but gained their first seats in the House of Commons from the late 1960s. From the late 1960s, they were regarded as serious parties and as a threat for the Labour Party. - The SNP's nationalism was not based on identity or culture but on economic matters. The SNP wanted Scotland to run their own resources. In the late 60s - early 70s, they benefited from a huge discovery, oil and gas in the North Sea, mostly on the Scottish coast. Under international law, should Scotland become independent, oil and gas would be Scottish. So the SNP claimed that it was Scotland's oil and that Scotland could afford to be independent and that Scotland was deprived of its national resources by Britain (taxes paid by oil companies benefited the British). - Obviously, the Labour Party could not let Scotland or Wales become independent but Labour devised a kind of compromise called "devolution" which was more or less similar to the Home Rule that has been granted to Northern Ireland. Two Acts were passed in 1978: The Scotland Act and The Wales Act that provide for the creation of assemblies in Scotland and Wales to deal with domestic affairs. The Conservatives led by Thatcher were against. The Liberals were in favor. The Liberals have had 2 aims since the interwar years: proportional elections and turning the UK into a federal state. Devolution would be a first step. Both nationalist parties were prepared to support devolution also as a first step towards full independence, but Labour, the main party, was divided. There were many Labour politicians who contended that central government had to remain strong in order to be able to redistribute money in particular from the wealthiest regions to the poorest and devolution was likely to weaken central government according to them. As Labour was divided, the final decision would belong to the people through a referendum. So there were two referendum in Scotland and Wales on the 1st of March 1979, after the Act had been passed by Parliament. The Welsh rejected devolution altogether. As for the Scots, a narrow majority voted for devolution but the legislation imposed a threshold as a proportional electorate and this threshold was not met. So there was a majority but it was too narrow. So devolution was not enforced. Then the Conservatives came into power with Thatcher. ##### B/ Northern Ireland - There was a Parliament in Northern Ireland set up in 1921 near Belfast. All Protestants were supposed to protect the catholic minority. In fact, they discriminated against Catholics, in particular as for housing and jobs. From the late 1960s, there were peaceful demonstrations organised by Catholics against this discrimination. The police forces dominated by Protestants reacted and the peaceful demonstrations turned into violent demonstrations. British troops had to interfere but they often sided with Protestants. Violence and a number of casualties peaked in the early 1970s and especially in 1972 when troops opened fire on individuals demanding the protection of their Civil Rights. So 14 of them were killed. The soldiers were not held accountable. This Sunday is known as "Bloody Sunday". The British government had to react. So the Northern Irish Parliament was abolished in 1972. Northern Ireland would be governed by British institutions and both main parties would try and find a solution over 3o years. The Civil War would last for 3o years, officially known as "The Troubles". 3,000 individuals died. There would have a peace agreement, before Home Rule could be restored, with all political parties. Sinn Féin, the catholic party, was prepared to use violence with the IRA (The Irish Republican Army). At the beginning of the Civil War, 2 new parties appeared. At the beginning of that Civil War, a new party called "Social Democratic and Labour Party" appeared (condemned violence). The old UUP was also quite moderate. A hardline Protestant party called "The Democratic and Unionist Party" (DUP) appeared too. These 4 parties are still the 4 major parties in Northern Ireland. In Northern Ireland, the word "unionist" refers to Protestant. DUP supported violence through Loyalists. ### Chapter 2: Keynesian economic policies - These economic policies were inspired by the ideas of Keynes. There was a consensus made between both parties. The state had to interfere to redistribute money between regions and between individuals. The main reform would be enforced by the first Labour government and most of them would be preserved under the following government until the 1970s. - The Labour government led by Attlee nationalised many companies. It was a huge commitment. Some sectors were regarded as strategic and had to be nationalised: transports (air, road, rail…), raw materials (coal, iron, steel, electricity, gas). Private owners, supported by the Conservatives, disagreed. But the Conservatives would eventually tolerate this nationalism. Public corporations would not be nationalised until 1979 (not for steel privatised in the early 50s and renationalised by the Conservatives since the late 60s). - The Conservative government even nationalised some shipyard in Scotland. Only a few large companies were nationalised. Most businesses, especially small ones, remained under private ownership. The public corporation was supposed to run their affairs in the interests of the nation as a whole. They were supposed to pay more attention to their workforce. The manufacturing industries were still declining. They had been briefly boosted by WW2. But then, they declined because of foreign competition. Until 1979, successive British governments tended to support them, but some of them had to close down. As a result, there was a government support for the areas that suffered from higher unemployment. - The regional policies that had appeared in interwar years were strengthened and extended in particular under Labour governments. By the late 60s, all regions that were part of the economic North were regarded as assisted areas, private companies that invested in thoses areas could receive grants. In addition, there was specific support for Scotland and Wales. Indeed, in the mid-70s, development agencies were set up in Scotland and Wales to encourage companies to settle in Scotland and Wales. There were no similar agencies for the North of England. There was a real advantage for Scotland and Wales because they had nationalist parties. Labour politicians thought that if they granted additional economic support to Scotland and Wales, the Scots and the Welsh would be less likely to demand independence. - As for taxation, Labour tended to increase direct taxes both on individuals' incomes and on companies' profits called "The Corporation Tax". In the 1970s, when oil and gas were discovered, an additonal tax was created on the huge profits made by oil companies. Both main parties agreed. - There was economic recovery in the 1950s. The consumer society appeared. There was an economic growth, new products appeared. Consumers could afford to purchase new appliances such as TV. The sell of TV was boosted by the coronation of Elizabeth II. But then, the 60s and 70s were difficult. Economic growth was much lower and the inflation rate was high reaching more than 10% and even 20% in the 1970s. In 1975, the rate was 25%. No government could handle them. The Pound had to be devalued in 1967. In 1976, Britain had to be supported by the International Monetary Fund which usually support developing countries. Britain was often called "the sick man of Europe". ### Chapter 3: The Welfare State - Labour came to power to tackle the 5 giants of Evil. Ignorance would lead to education policies. These education reforms were enacted at the end of the coalition government led by Churchill in 1944. Then, Primary education was compulsory and free. Secondary education would be compulsory and free up to the age of 15. So every child would benefit from secondary education but there were 3 types of Secondary schools. They would take an exam at the age of 11 and were allowed to attend Grammar schools for the brightest pupils. At the bottom, there were Technical schools. Those coming from a working-class background were far less likely to attend a Grammar school. Other reforms would be enforced by the Labour governments. - The 5 giants of Evil would lead to housing policies. There were a few Council Houses especially in the North. Labour extended the provision of Council Houses across the whole territory. For the working-classes and also for some of the midddle classes, there would be decent housing with basic amenities, rents would remain moderate, and buildings would be properly maintained. - Disease would lead to the creation of the National Health Service (NHS). There were doctors and nurses but they worked on a private basis, they charged fees which often deterred individuals from the working classes. Only the poorest benefited from free healthcare. The NHS was revolutionary: it was a public system that integrated doctors, nurses, and hospitals. The idea was to provide quality healthcare everywhere in Britain and it would be free of charges for all patients. Access was based on clinical needs only, not on individuals' incomes. It was available for all, and immediately it became a very popular institution. Nowadays, the NHS is one of the most popular British institutions. - As for want, this would lead to a comprehensive system of benefits. But before the war (WW1), the first benefits had been created under the Liberals (only benefited individuals working in some industries). After WW2, they would benefit everyone, whenever they needed financial support (sick, unemployed…). Benefits would also benefit all individuals working in any industry, both employees and self-employed individuals. These benefits were universal, it was the same amount of money for everyone. Another major step forward was that all individuals would be entitled to receive benefits. The poorest were supported, but they had to apply for this specific support under the Court Laws. Many of them were ashamed to do so. This reform would also remove the stigma. It was the same system for everyone. - As for idleness, this relates to economic policies to encourage companies to settle in the North. Beveridge expected full employment, so that the system would be properly founded. But it was never achieved. There were some reforms before 1979. - In the early 1950s, the Labour government that had created the NHS introduced charges on eye and dental treatments. The Minister for Health resigned because he really wanted the system to remain free. The following Conservative government, led by Churchill, introduced the first charges on prescriptions/on medicine. The NHS remained free, except for the charges mentioned (eye/dental). In the late 60s, the Labour government tried to abolish these charges, but because of Britain's economic difficulties they had to be restored. - That same government, led by Wilson, pursued the education reforms. Labour disapproved of the hierarchy between three types of secondary schools, so they removed this hierarchy. There would be a single State School in every area called a Comprehensive School. Children living in the same area would attend the same school. But Labour, under pressure, had to maintain Grammar schools for the brightest pupils (most of the time from middle-class background). - As economic difficulties increased in the 1970s, the following government, still led by Wilson, had to restore some means-testing benefits after 1974, which used to be universal. The government put an end to the building of new Council Houses. The existing ones would remain. ### Chapter 4: The loss of the Empire, the EEC #### I/ India - Labour was pragmatic about colonies. During WW2, senior Labour politicians, that had criticised the Empire, intended to focus on the development of the colonies instead of granting their independence. But at the end of the war, Britain went bankrupt. They received financial support from India. The government led by Atlee realised that colonies would have to become independent, beginning with India. - The Congress had become increasingly frustrated by self-government granted in the mid-30s. During WW2, their leaders were pretty clear: their slogan was "Quit India". Many Indian soldiers took part in the War, so the Congress leaders demanded independence. Atlee announced the departure of the British in 1947. He appointed Lord Mountbatten as the last Viceroy of India to deal with independence. An act called "The India Independence Act" was passed in 1947. But once independence was granted, the British would not interfere. The Congress, that initially intended to govern the whole of India, was not supported by Muslims. Muslims had a leader called Jinnah. There were talks between the leaders, but it was not successful. Jinnah and the Muslim League wanted their own state. Independence immediately led to the partition of the country between 2 states: India (Hindu majority) and Pakistan (Muslim majority). There were 2 parts: North-West of India and South-East India. - This partition led to the displacement of 17 million individuals. People from both religious communities feared the consequences of this independence. Hindus did not want to live in a Muslim state, and vice-versa. Obviously, there was violence. Independence led to a civil war and partition. - Gandhi, who had been expected to lead the newly India, was murdered by a member of the Sikh community who blamed him for the partition. But he tried very hard to avoid all of this. The first leader of the newly-independent India was Nehru. He would then be succeeded as PM by his daughter Indira Gandhi and in turn her son, Gandhi. The Congress governed India for most the 20th century. Nowadays, there is a much more different government, determined to promote its own religion. - The Congress wanted India to be a republic, to be fully independent. But British politicians did not want to lose their close ties with India. There was a major reform of the Commonwealth. Initially, the monarch was both the head of the Commonwealth and the Head of State for the newly independent colonies. These colonies had to remain monarchies. India leaders wanted a republic. The government decided that the monarch would be the Head of the Commonwealth, but no longer necessarily the Head of every state. They could have their own elected presidents. - An act was also passed, which stated that the Commonwealth was multiracial. This new stage of the Commonwealth would be called "New Commonwealth" (no longer used). - India's independence paved the way for the independence of other colonies, often after a gradual process. Most of the time, the British government granted independence quite easily. After granting it, they would not interfere and deal with tensions. They encouraged colonies that were close to form federations. There were a lot of federations for the first year, but did not last long. #### II/ The first independences after the War - India and Pakistan - Islands in the West Indies - The island of the Southern Coast of India "Ceylon" → "Sri Lanka" - In South East Asia: Burma, Malaysia, Singapore from Malaysia a few years after - The Western Coast of Africa: Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra, Gambia - There were difficulties with Kenya. Independence was achieved after a war with lots of violence against local people that were despised by the British and nicknamed "Mau Mau" which was derogatory. Population was displaced, some of them were sent to torture camps and tens of thousands of Mau Mau were killed. Independence was finally achieved in 1963. - Territories of the North of South Africa: Cecil Rhodes, who also ran territories of the North of South Africa, created new colonies called "Rhodesia" in the 1960s. There were 2 territories: North and South Rhodesia. North Rhodesia would gain independence as Zambia, and South Rhodesia would later become Zimbabwe. South Rhodesia was first said to be a self-government in the 1920s. However, in the 1960s, it was led by a white man called lan Smith who demanded independence, but for a country that would be governed by a white majority. He was inspired by South Africa. So, the British would not recognise independence until a black man came into power in 1980. Then, Zimbabwe gained - North of these 2 countries, there was a colony called Nyasaland that gained independence and became Malawi. Tanganyika gained independence as Tanzania. - The Commonwealth was then multi-ethnic with many languages. The members were both monarchies and republics. The Commonwealth had a permanent structure in London. There were annual meetings with the Heads of States and a permanent secretary in-between. There were games organised every 4 years. - After the war, Britain continued to retain close relationships with the Commonwealth for trade. #### III/ South Africa - South Africa was independent but then would be expelled from the Commonwealth. In this multiracial Commonwealth, British politicians also had to pay attention to the governments of other independent states. The British still defended the same line: no interfering. - Prime Minister Harold MacMillan (Conservative) delivered a speech in 1960 known as "The Wind of Change Speech". It refers to decolonisation. He was pretty clear: the British would not interfere in the affairs of other states, but other members disagreed, in particular as for South Africa. - In South Africa, after independence, successive governments encouraged the full separation between different communities, based on the colour of their skins: the Apartheid. The white minority had all powers. A movement called "The African National Congress" (ANC) was created, and was initially peaceful (demonstrations). The turning point would happen in the early 1960s when demonstrations were subjective to harsh repressions. One of the leaders, Nelson Mandela was arrested and would later be imprisoned. There could be no official opposition to Apartheid in South Africa. So, there was some reaction from the Commonwealth, and South Africa was expelled in 1961. - It would only be readmitted in 1990, when Nelson Mandela was being released and Apartheid nearly abolished. Zimbabwe was also expelled for a time, as a fascist racist government came to power but then was overthrown. Pakistan was part of the Commonwealth initially. But, in the early 1970s, there was a civil war in Pakistan that would lead to the partition of the country. The South-West remained Pakistan whereas the South-East became Bangladesh. Pakistan was then expelled from the Commonwealth until the late 1980s. #### IV/ New organisations - After WW2, the leaders of France and Germany intended to create new organisations that would favour lasting reconciliation. British leaders from both main parties supported these initiatives, but also had their own interests and were very keen on descending them. Winston Churchill delivered a speech that summarised the dominant view of the British Elite. He contended that there were 3 circles: Britain was the core. Then, there were the Commonwealth and the Empire: Britain's priority. This circle was composed of English-speaking countries, especially the USA, the Empire and the Commonwealth, and finally came Europe. In addition, the British refused to abandon their sovereignty. Consequently, they would make appropriate decisions about very new organisations that was being set up. They immediately joined the "North Atlantic Treaty Organisation" (NATO), a military alliance created in 1948 and dominated by the USA. - As for European organisations, there was a first organisation called the Council of Europe and created in 1949 with headquarters in Strasbourg, which aimed at integrating as many European countries as possible. Two years later, it published the "European Convention on Human Rights", providing every individual with basic rights (the rights to family life, property, protection against torture…). The convention was partly drafted by British lawyers and was signed by the British. The Council of Europe was not supposed to impose decisions on its members. Its assembly was only consultative. Britain joined the Council immediately. - However, in 1951, there were 6 European states including France and Germany that set up the "Coal and Steel Community" based on close corporation and able to make binding decisions (that is to say to impose a decision on its members). The British disagreed, they didn't want decisions to be imposed on the British Parliament. In addition, coal and steel had just been nationalised, so they wanted it to be run at the UK level. A few years later, the members of the Coal and Steel Community decided to go further and to create a European Economic Community (EEC). The Treaty of Rome was signed in 1957 without Britain. They only took part in the first discussions. There were several reasons: - Binding organisation. - Creation of a common market for some goods, in particular agriculture. There would be a Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) to support European farmers because the EEC leaders wanted to be self-sufficient, to produce enough food for European consumers. European farmers were supported to increase their production. The British had opposite interests because in the 19th century (The Industrial Rev.), manufacturing was by far the dominant sector of the economy, and the British had become used to importing parts of their food. So, in the 1950s, they had very few farmers. They feared that, as European farmers would be supported, food prices would increase at the expense of the consumers. British politicians preferred defending their consumers than their farmers. - The Commonwealth: the EEC intended to create a customs union, so there would be common customs policy on trade with the rest of the world, common customs duties in particular. The British feared that goods imported from the Commonwealth would be charged and would be more expensive on the British market. The British wanted to support the economic development of their former colonies. They imported sugar from the West Indies and dairy products from New Zealand. - Scepticism: they didn't think the EEC would work. It may be related to the fact that they felt different because of WW2 (had resisted on their own). - That's why Britain didn't join. British politicians realised that they could not remain isolated. So they set up the "European Free Trade Association" (EFTA) (still exists) with European countries which didn't belong to the EEC. The EFTA was the opposite of the EEC : there were no customs union, no CAP. It was not a binding association… #### V/ Britain joining the EEC - About the early 1960s, the Conservative government led by MacMillan made a complete U-turn and decided to apply for EEC membership in 1961 for several reasons: - The EEC had proved that it worked. Its members were experiencing economic growth, unlike Britain. - As colonies gained independence, they turned to new economic partners. Trade with the Commonwealth only accounted for 1/3 of the British trade. - The USA: British politicians were very proud of what they called their "special" relationship with the USA. In postwar years, they would come to realise that Britain was regarded as one partner amongst many. - The turning point was the nationalisation of the Suez Canal in Egypt in 1966. Nasser came to power and decided to nationalise it. It had been built by French engineers and taken over by the British. This nationalisation triggered a reaction from the French and the British, with both of them ready to use their military power to defend their interests. The USA refused to take part in the conflict and to support the UK, as it had other interests. - Britain and France, both humiliated, drew very different conclusions. The British realised they needed new political partners. They still remained close to the USA. As for nuclear weapons, both France and Britain wanted to have nuclear weapons, but they made opposite decisions. France wanted to be fully independent. The British purchased their weapons from the USA, with the Polaris Missile System (today the Trident System). But purchasing their bomb from the USA meant that the USA could make decisions on where these missiles would be located: in Scotland near Glasgow, as it was a strategic location (waters). These missiles, warheads and launcher submarines, were all located there (still nowadays). - The British made their first application to join the EEC but it had to be approved by all members. The French president, Charles de Gaulle, disagreed and vetoed it. He thought that Britain was an island, so there would be many consequences. He vetoed this first application. Labour was still divided about this application, and then came back in power with Wilson who wanted to join, so there was a second application. It was vetoed a second time by De Gaulle, who added another reason: the British economy was too weak (Pound devalued). In 1969, De Gaulle resigned and was succeeded by Pompidou. A third application was made under the Conservative government led by Edward Heath and it was successful. A Treaty of Accession was signed in 1972 and was ratified by the British Parliament. So Britain entered the EEC on the 1st of January 1973. But there were still divisions within the Labour party. When Wilson came to power, in 1974, he made a very unusual decision: as the ruling party was divided, there would be a referendum. The final decision would be made by the population. It was held in June 1975. There were 2 umbrella organisations: one in favour of staying, and the other of leaving. The Conservative Party, already led by Margaret Thatcher, wanted Britain to stay. Some Labour politicians campaigned in favour of staying. The Liberals were also in favour. Those who wanted Britain to leave were some Labour politicians, as well as trade unions. They campaigned in particular to defend the interest of workers. Inflation was very high at the time. People were confused. They also defended Commonwealth's interests. - As for regional parties, the SNP and Plaid Cymru claimed that they were in favour of European integration but disagreed with the terms negotiated by the British government, as they were in favour of the British government. As for fishing, there would be a common fishery policy and Scotland had rich waters full of fish so the SNP claimed that its resources were not properly defended from European competition. So both parties campaigned in favour of leaving. Many parties campaigned in favour of leaving. The 2 Protestant parties wanted Britain to recover its full sovereignty and Sinn Féin was a left-wing party that defended workers. - Newspapers were in favour of staying. The press had a high circulation. In Ireland, there was already the Civil War so there were other priorities. 2/3 of the British voted in favour of staying. They were not interested but pragmatic. The PM and senior politicians had advised the public that on an economic level, it was much better for the British to stay in the EEC. Membership would no longer be questioned by politicians (until 2010).