A Comprehensive Study of Education-PHI PDF

S.SAMUEL RAVI Assistant Professor N.M.Christian College, Marthandam Tamil Nadu -S. Samuel Ravi Preface Acknowledgements 1. MEANING AND NATURE OF EDUCATION Introduction Meaning of Education Narrow and Wider Meanings of Education Indian and Western Meaning of Education Definitions of Education Factors of Education Characteristics of Education Types of Education Education Differentiated from Related Terms Modern Concepts of Education Scope of Education Importance of Education Conclusion 2. FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION Introduction Meaning, Functions and Aims of Education Conclusion 3. AIMS OF EDUCATION Introduction Meaning of Aim Individual and Social Aims of Education Synthesis between Individual and Social Aims General Aims of Education Changing Aims of Education in India Aims of Education in Medieval India Conclusion 4. EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY Introduction Meaning of Philosophy Definition of Philosophy Meaning of Education Definitions of Education Meaning of Educational Philosophy Definitions of Educational Philosophy Scope of Educational Philosophy Objectives of Studying Educational Philosophy Need and Importance of Educational Philosophy Relationship between Philosophy and Education Impact of Philosophy on Education (Relation of Philosophy with Education) Conclusion 5. IDEALISM Introduction Protagonists of Idealism Meaning of Idealism Definitions of Idealism Features of Idealism Forms of Idealism Idealism in Education Idealism and Aim of Education Idealism and Curriculum Idealism and Method of Teaching Idealism and Teacher Idealism and Student Idealism and Discipline Idealism and School Contributions of Idealism To Education (Impact of Idealism on Education) Merits of Idealism Demerits of Idealism Conclusion 6. REALISM Introduction Chief Protagonists of Realism Meaning of Realism Definitions of Realism Principles of Realism Forms of Realism and Its Impact on Education Realism in Education Characteristics of Realistic Education Realism and Aims of Education Curriculum Method of Teaching Realism and Textbooks Realism and Teacher Realism and Student Realism and Discipline Realism and School Contribution of Realism to Education Merits of Realism Demerits of Realism Conclusion 7. NATURALISM Introduction Protagonists of Naturalism Meaning of Naturalism Definitions of Naturalism Forms of Naturalism Principles of Naturalism Naturalism in Education Characteristics of Naturalistic Education Naturalism and Aim of Education Naturalism and Curriculum Naturalism and Method of Teaching Naturalism and Teacher Naturalism and Student Naturalism and Discipline Naturalism and School Contribution of Naturalism to Education (Impact of Naturalism on Education) Merits of Naturalism Demerits of Naturalism Conclusion 8. PRAGMATISM Introduction Protagonists of Pragmatism Meaning of Pragmatism Definitions of Pragmatism Forms of Pragmatism Principles of Pragmatism Pragmatism in Education Characteristics of Pragmatic Education Pragmatism and Aim of Education Pragmatism and Curriculum Pragmatism and Method of Teaching Pragmatism and Discipline Pragmatism and Teacher Pragmatism and Student Pragmatism and School Contribution of Pragmatism to Education Merits of Pragmatism Demerits of Pragmatism Comparison of Idealism, Naturalism and Pragmatism Principles of Education Conclusion 9. EXISTENTIALISM Introduction Historical Development of Existentialism Protagonists of Existentialism Meaning of Existentialism Definition Existence-From Birth to Death Fundamentals of Existentialism Assumptions of Existentialism Characteristics of Existentialism Existentialism and Education Meaning of Education Aim of Education Curriculum Method of Teaching Role of the Teacher Discipline Religious Education Educational Implications of Existentialism Contribution of Existentialism to Education Merits of Existentialist Philosophy Demerits of Existentialist Philosophy Conclusion 10. RABINDRANATH TAGORE (1861-1941) Introduction Life of Rabindranath Tagore Tagore's Philosophy of Life Educational Philosophy of Tagore Basic Educational Thoughts of Tagore Meaning of Education Aim of Education Curriculum Methods of Teaching Discipline Teachers School and Student Contribution of Tagore to Education Note on Shantiniketan Vishwa Bharathi Conclusion 11. MAHATMA GANDHI Introduction Life of Mahatma Gandhi General Philosophy of Gandhi Educational Philosophy of Gandhi Features of Gandhian Educational Philosophy Publications of Gandhi on Education Gandhi's Views on Education Aims of Education Other Contribution of Gandhi to Education Gandhi's Basic Education (Wardha Scheme) Conclusion 12. SWAMI VIVEKANANDA (1863-1902) Introduction Life of Swami Vivekananda General Philosophy of Life Basic Principles of Educational Philosophy Meaning and Definition of Education Main Ingredients of Education Aims of Education Curriculum Method of Teaching Place of Teacher Place of Child Discipline Contribution of Swami Vivekananda to Education Notes on Man-making Education Conclusion 13. SRI AUROBINDO GHOSH (1872-1950) Introduction Life of Sri Aurobindo Ghosh Aurobindo's General Philosophy of Life Aurobindo's Philosophy of Education Basic Principles of Aurobindo's Education Meaning of Education Aim of Education Curriculum Method of Teaching Place of Teacher Place of Child Discipline Contribution of Aurobindo to Education Notes on Aurobindo's Integral Education Aurobindo Ashram at Pondicherry (Aurobindo International Centre of Education) Auroville Conclusion 14. JIDDU KRISHNAMURTI (1895-1986) Introduction Life of Krishnamurti General Philosophy of Jiddu Krishnamurti Krishnamurti's Views on Indian Education Educational Philosophy of Krishnamurti Meaning of Education Aims of Education Curriculum Method of Teaching Role of Teacher Place of School Student Discipline Contribution of Krishnamurti to Education Conclusion 15. JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU (1712-1778) Introduction Life of Rousseau Philosophy of Rousseau Rousseau's Three Concepts of Nature Rousseau's Philosophy of Education Rousseau's Concept of Education Aim of Education Aim of Education at Different Stages of Child Rousseau's Concept of Curriculum Methods of Teaching Role of Teacher Discipline School Organization Rousseau's Contribution to Education Negative Education Rousseau's Emile Conclusion 16. FROEBEL (1782-1852) Introduction Life of Froebel Philosophy of Froebel Meaning of Education Educational Thought of Froebel Froebel's Kindergarten Role of Teacher in Kindergarten Meaning of Play-way Method Froebel's Contribution to Modern Education Conclusion 17. JOHN DEWEY (1859-1952) Introduction Life of John Dewey John Dewey's Educational Philosophy Dewey's Concept of Education Functions of Education Aim of Education Scheme of Education Principles of Curriculum Method of Teaching Discipline Role of Teacher Dewey's Concept of School Contribution of Dewey to Modern Education (Impact of Dewey on Education) Criticism of Dewey's Educational Thoughts Conclusion 18. MARIA MONTESSORI (1870-1952) Introduction Life of Montessori Meaning of Education Principles of Montessori Method (Educational Thoughts of Montessori) Practices of Montessori Method in Children's House Exercises in Children's House (Practices of Montessori Method) Montessori's Didactic Approach Role of Teacher in Montessori Method Discipline in Montessori Method Merits of Montessori Method Demerits of Montessori Method Contribution of Montessori to Modern Educational Theory and Practices Comparison of Froebel and Montessori Conclusion 19. IVAN ILLICH (1926-2002) Introduction Life of Illich Meaning of Deschooling Principles of Deschooling Reasons for Deschooling or Evils of Present School Characteristics of Schools Characteristics of Deschooling Ivan Illich on Learning Non-schooling Alternatives Educational Resource Centre Non-classroom Learning Conclusion 20. MEANING AND SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY Introduction Meaning of Sociology Definition of Sociology Meaning of Educational Sociology Definition of Educational Sociology Nature of Educational Sociology Need for Educational Sociology Importance of Educational Sociology Scope of Educational Sociology Objectives of Educational Sociology Relationship between Education and Sociology Conclusion 21. EDUCATION AND SOCIAL MOBILITY Introduction Definition of Social Mobility Types of Social Mobility Dimensions of Social Mobility Factors Affecting Social Mobility Relationship between Education and Social Mobility Merits of Social Mobility Demerits of Social Mobility Conclusion 22. EDUCATION AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION Introduction Meaning of Social Stratification Definitions of Social Stratification Social Stratification in India Criteria of Social Stratification Characteristics of Social Stratification Functions of Social Stratification Education and Social Stratification Conclusion 23. SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY Introduction Meaning and Definition of School Characteristics of Schools Need and Importance of School Functions of School Community Relationship between School and Community Impact of School on Community Impact of Community on School Collaboration: School and Community Reasons for Absence of Relationship between School and Community in India Meaning of Community School Conclusion 24. EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE Introduction Meaning of Social Change Definitions of Social Change Social Change and Cultural Change Forms of Social Change Nature of Social Change Factors of Social Change (Causes) Methods of Social Change Factors Resisting Social Changes Role of Education in Social Change Role of Teacher in Social Change Role of School in Social Change Conclusion 25. EDUCATION AND CULTURE Introduction Meaning of Culture Definitions of Culture Characteristics of Culture Culture and Civilization Types of Culture Functions of Culture Relationship between Education and Culture Influence of Culture on Education Role of Education in Culture Preservation and Transmission of Culture (Role of Education in Cultural Development) Education and Culture: Indian Views 26. EDUCATION AND HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT Introduction Meaning of Human Resource Development Definition of Human Resource Development Symbols of Human Resource Development Objectives of Human Resource Development Basic Facts of Human Resource Development Need and Importance of Human Resource Development Factors Encouraging Human Resource Development Role of Education in Human Resource Development Kothari's Views on Education in Human Resource Development Conclusion 27. EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Introduction Meaning of Economics Meaning of National Development Meaning of Economic Development Education of Economic Views Impact of Economics on Education Role of Education in Economic Development (Views of Economists) Role of Education in Economic Development Conclusion 28. UNIVERSALISATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Introduction Meaning Need for Free Education Need for Compulsory Education Universalisation of Elementary Education Importance of Universalisation of Elementary Education Stages of Universalisation of Primary Education Problems of Universalisation of Elementary Education Suggestions for Universalisation of Elementary Education Realisation of Universalisation of Elementary Education Attempts Made at Present for UEE Recommendations of Saikia Committee Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) Operational Strategy of S.S.A Activities of SSA Conclusion 29. EDUCATION FOR DEMOCRACY Introduction Meaning Definitions Three Interpretations of Democracy Principles of Democracy Democratic Values Need of Education for Democracy Principles of Democratic Education Democracy and Education Democracy and Education in India Conclusion 30. EDUCATION AND SECULARISM Introduction Meaning of Secularism Western Secularism Indian Concept of Secularism Characteristics of Secularism Secularism in Education Ways and Means of Promoting Secularism through Education Role of School and Teacher in Secular Education Impact of Secular Education Limitations of Secular Education Conclusion 31. BRAHMINISATION AND SANSKRITISATION Introduction Meaning of Brahminisation Meaning of Sanskritisation Difference between Brahminisation and Sanskritisation Characteristics of Sanskritisation Factors Determining Sanskritisation Role of Education in Brahminisation and Sanskritisation Conclusion 32. EDUCATION AND MODERNISATION Introduction Meaning of Modernisation Main Features of Modernisation Components of Modernisation Role of Education in Modernisation Modernisation on Different Aspects of Education Role of the Teacher in Modernisation Hindrances in the Modernisation in Indian Society Conclusion 33. VALUES IN EDUCATION Introduction Meaning of Value Definitions of Value Nature of Values Dr. Karan Singh's (Vice-Chancellor, J.N.University) Classification Sources of Values Meaning of Value Education Characteristics of Value Education Views about Educational Values Kinds of Educational Values Need for Value Education Importance of Value Education Objectives of Value Education Methods of Imparting Value Education Role of School in Value Education Role of the Teacher in Value Education Advantage of Value Education Conclusion 34. POPULATION EDUCATION Introduction Meaning of Population Education Definition of Population Education Nature of Population Education Need and Importance of Population Education Need for Population Education in the Indian Society Objectives of Population Education General Objectives of Population Education Scope and Content of Population Education Population Education Programme Objectives of Population Education in Schools Curriculum of Population Education Teaching Methods of Population Education Role of the Teacher in Population Education Learning Exercises for Population Education Problems of Population Education Population Education Programme in India Future Programme Conclusion 35. WOMEN'S EDUCATION Introduction Meaning of Women's Education Need and Importance of Women's Education Objectives of Women's Education Functions of Women's Education Problems of Women's Education Recommendations of Commissions and Committees on Girls' Education Measures for Popularisation of Women's Education Present Position of Women's Education in India Conclusion 36. ADULT EDUCATION Introduction Meaning of Adult Education Definitions of Adult Education Aims of Adult Education Need and Importance of Adult Education Problems of Adult Education National Policy Statement on Adult Education (1977) National Adult Education Programmes (NAEP) Conclusion 37. DISTANCE EDUCATION Introduction Meaning of Distance Education Definitions of Distance Education Characteristics of Distance Education Objective of Distance Education Need for Distance Education Mode of Distance Education Advantages of Distance Education Disadvantages of Distance Education Problems and Suggestions for the Progress of Distance Education Conclusion 38. HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION Introduction Meaning of Health Meaning of Health Education Objectives of Health Education General Objectives of Health Education in School Importance of Health Education Principles of Health Education Methods for Imparting Health Education Teacher and Health Education Physical Education Definition of Physical Education Need and Importance of Physical Education Scope of Physical Education Aim of Physical Education General Objectives of Physical Education Physical Education Programme Role of Teachers in Physical Education Role of Physical Education Teachers Conclusion 39. EQUALIZATION OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES Introduction Meaning of Equalisation of Educational Opportunities Need for the Equalisation of Educational Opportunities Causes for Inequality in Education Methods of Equalisation of Educational Opportunities Role of Central Government in Equalisation of Educational Opportunities Role of National Policy on Education (1986) in Equalisation of Educational Opportunities Equality of Educational Opportunities in Tamil Nadu Conclusion 40. EDUCATION FOR NATIONAL INTEGRATION Introduction Meaning of National Integration Definitions of National Integration National Integration and Emotional Integration Meaning of Emotional Integration Need for National Integration Obstacles to National Integration Education for National Integration Merits of Education for National Integration Demerits of Education for National Integration Conclusion 41. EDUCATION FOR INTERNATIONAL UNDERSTANDING Introduction Meaning of International Understanding Need for International Understanding Arguments for International Understanding Principles of International Understanding Barriers in Developing International Understanding Goals of Education for International Understanding Need for Education in International Understanding Education and International Understanding Role of Educational Institutions and International Understanding Role of Teacher in International Understanding Role of UNESCO in Developing International Understanding Conclusion 42. GLOBALIZATION AND EDUCATION Introduction Meaning of Globalization Meaning of Globalization of Education Globalization of Higher Education Need and Importance of Globalization Globalization of Indian Higher Education Suggestions to the Indian Government Recommendations to Educational Institutions Objectives of Higher Education and Globalization Globalization and Curriculum of Higher Education Methods of Teaching: Higher Education and Globalization Discipline: Higher Education and Globalization Role of Teacher in Globalization of Education Impact of Globalization on Education Supporters of Globalization of Education Opponents of Globalization of Education Regulation for Globalization of Education in India Evaluation Conclusion 43. NATIONAL YOUTH PROGRAMMES Introduction Youth Programmes National Cadet Corps (NCC) National Service Scheme (NSS) Scouts and Guides Junior Red Cross and First Aid Groups Nehru Yuva Kendras (NYK) International Exchange of Youth Delegation (IEYD) Promotion of National Integration (PNI) National Service Volunteer Scheme (NSVS) Exhibition for Youth Scheme for Promotion of Adventure Training of Youth Youth Hostels and Youth Festivals National Reconstruction Corps (NRC) National Commission for Youth University Employment, Information and Guidance Bureaus (UEIGB) Youth Services in the Universities Conclusion 44. PHILOSOPHY OF NATIONAL FESTIVALS Introduction Kinds of Indian Festivals Major Indian Festivals Objectives of Indian Festivals Philosophy of Indian Festivals Conclusion 45. UNIVERSITY EDUCATION COMMISSION (1948-1949) (Dr. Radhakrishnan Commission) Introduction Members of the Commission Terms of Reference Recommendations of Radhakrishnan Commission Evaluation of the Recommendations of the Commission Demerits of this Commission Conclusion 46. SECONDARY EDUCATION COMMISSION (1952-1953) (Dr. A.L.Mudaliar Commission) Introduction Members of the Commission Terms of Reference Contents of the Report Defects of Secondary Education Aims and Objectives of Secondary Education Development of Vocational Efficiency Re-organization of Secondary Education Curriculum Textbooks Methods of Teaching Guidance and Counselling Examination System Medium of Instruction Women Education Health and Physical Education Moral and Religious Education Vocational Education Public Schools Teacher Education Teacher's Status School Libraries and Reading Habits School Management and Recognition Buildings and Equipments Educational Finance Supervision and Inspection Administration Evaluation of Secondary Education Commission Demerits of Secondary Education Commission Conclusion 47. INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION (1964-1966) (National Education Commission or Kothari Commission) Introduction Members of the Commission Task Forces and Working Groups Objectives of the Commission Recommendations of the Commission Merits of the Commission Demerits of the Commission Conclusion 48. NEW EDUCATION POLICY (1986) Introduction Contents of New Education Policy Part I: Introduction Part II: The Essence and Role of Education Part III: National System of Education Part IV: Education for Equality Part V: Re-organization of Education at Different Stages Child Centred Approach Part VI: Technical and Management Education Part VII: Making the System Work Part VIII: Re-orienting the Content and Process of Education Part IX: The Teacher Part X: The Management of Education Part XI: Resources and Review Part XII: The Future Merits of New Policy on Education Demerits of the New Education Policy (1986) Conclusion 49. REVISED EDUCATION POLICY (1992) Introduction Ram Murti Committee (1990-1991) Janardhan Reddy Committee Report (1992) Conclusion 50. EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS National Council for Educational Research And Training (NCERT) National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE) University Grants Commision (UGC) District Institutes of Education and Training (DIET) National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) Conclusion 51. Meaning, Nature and Scope of Environmental Education Introduction Meaning of Environment Meaning of Environmental Education Definition of Environmental Education Nature of Environmental Education Principles of Environmental Education Objectives of Environmental Education Need for Environmental Education Importance of Environmental Education Scope of Environmental Education Scope of Formal Environmental Education Scope of Non-formal Environmental Education Classification of Environmental Education Conclusion 52. Environmental Pollution Introduction Meaning of Pollution Definitions of Pollution Environmental Pollutants Classification of Pollutants Types of Pollution Water Pollution Soil Pollution Marine Pollution Noise Pollution Nuclear Pollution Thermal Pollution Chemical Pollution (Food Pollution) Conclusion 53. Environmental Hazards Introduction Meaning of Environmental Hazards Climate Change Global Warming Greenhouse Effect Acid Rain Ozone Layer Nuclear Accidents and Holocaust Deforestation and Its Effects on Environment Conclusion 54. Environmental Crisis and Control Introduction Causes of Environmental Crisis Effects of Environmental Crisis Control of Environmental Crisis (Conservation) Conclusion 55. Role of School in Environmental Conservation and Sustainable Development Introduction Meaning of Environmental Conservation Ways of Conservation and Protection of Environment Environment and Sustainable Development Sustainable Development Role of School in Environmental Conservation and Sustainable Development Role of the Teacher in Environmental Conservation and Sustainable Development Teacher and Programme of Environmental Instruction Practical Work and Project Activities Undertaken by the School for Environmental Conservation and Sustainable Development Conclusion References Name Index Subject Index I, with great pleasure, greet the readers who are interested in understanding the comprehensive idea of education. This book would take you to the world of new education. In fact A Comprehensive Study of Education is an earnest attempt to provide the readers with a thorough understanding of the various concepts of education. As it is an outcome of two decades of work of the author as an academician in different educational and research institutions, its contents are qualitatively as well as quantitatively different from other books on education available in the market. In fact, this book has been prepared in such a way that its leaves may be turned to change your thoughts and its words may be perused to mould and shape yourself to become a model pedagogue and better future citizen of the world. Therefore, this book can be used as a powerful tool to bring about the desirable changes in the society. Moreover, concepts such as education, philosophy, educational philosophy, educational sociology, social change, social mobility, social stratification, economics, national integration and international understanding have been interpreted and explained according to the present situation. Hence, this book will be of great use to the lecturers, teachers, students, researchers and social activists at the B.Ed., M.Ed., and M.Phil. levels. Further, this book has been written according to the syllabus prescribed by the Indian universities for undergraduate and postgraduate degree courses in education. It provides an exhaustive treatment of the subject in a very lucid and cogent manner, so that the educators and educands can grasp the subject completely and clearly. I hope that this book can be used as a reference book also as it would meet the requirements of people who are interested in entering the world of education. S.Samuel Ravi I am very much grateful to Dr. James Premkumar, Chairman and Managing Director, and Mr. G.Friedrick Raja Sekhar, General Manager, James Groups of Educational and Medical Institutions, Colachel, Tamil Nadu for being a constant source of inspiration in this earnest endeavour. I thank Mr. M.Jayahar Joseph, Correspondent and Secretary, Dr. S.Dawn Dharma Roy, Principal, P.Jegan Babu, Assistant Professor and Mr. K.Francis, N.M.Christian College, Tamil Nadu for providing all facilities to enhance my academic skills, and a conducive working environment and constant support which introduce me to the world of writing. I convey my heartfelt thanks to the esteemed Professor B.William Dharma Raja and Professor G.Rexlin Jose, Department of Education, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tamil Nadu, whose encouragements and suggestions have made this book a distinguished one in the field of education. I express my profound thanks to Dr. G.Samuel George, Founder and Chairman and Dr. A.J.Bensam, Principal, Immanuel Arasar College of Education, Nattalam, Tamil Nadu who have turned my thoughts into a book for graduate and postgraduate degree courses in education. I am highly indebted to Professor (Mrs) Adline Selvaraj, Professor (Mrs) Daisy David, Professor (Late) R.Wilson, Mr. S.Johnson, Mr. A.Arul Dhas, Mr. C.Augustin, Dr. V.Selvam, Mr. M.Satheesh Jeyasingh and Mr. H.Starwin, who have been kind enough in going through the manuscript and shaping it according to the needs and style of the students and teachers. I am very much thankful to Dr. N.Joseph John, Professor of Physics, Noorul Islam University, Kumaracoil, Mr. R.K.Ratheesh Lynd, Lecturer, Department of Computer Applications, James College of Engineering and Technology, Nagercoil, Mr. A.Selvin Singh, Proprietor, Zion Computer Centre, Palappallam and Mr. S.Robinson Cruz, Stella Infotech Computer Education, Karungal, who helped me in typesetting the manuscript. I specially thank Mr. Asoke K.Ghosh, Chairman and Managing Director, Mrs. Babita Misra, Mrs. Shivani Garg, and Mr. Pankaj Manohar of PHI Learning, New Delhi, who have turned my vision into reality by publishing this book superbly for the development of education and society. S.Samuel Ravi INTRODUCTION Education is the most important and powerful instrument invented by mankind to shape and mould himself in a desirable manner. Any modification brought about in the behaviour of an individual, as a result of his interaction with the environment, constitutes learning. The history of the world proves that education has been the root cause for any change which takes place in the social, cultural, spiritual, political and economic aspects of human life. It is education, which not only transforms the human animal into a rational human being, but also prepares and develops him to survive and adjust with surroundings so as to lead his personal as well as social life successfully. Therefore, we may say that education is anything which the individual acquires through formal or non-formal organizations in the form of certificates or training by which his personality is prepared and developed to undertake any sort of task and adjust himself with the varying environments in order to fulfil his basic necessities and objectives of life. It is discerned from this statement that education has become one of the basic necessities of human life, like food, clothing and shelter. Today, life is education and education is life. Hence, no distinction can be made between life and education under any circumstances. In fact, education is part and parcel of human life. Generally, human life consists of biological, sociological, spiritual and cultural aspects. The biological aspects of human life can be sustained by food, shelter and reproduction. This aspect of life is found common in almost all biotic organisms. But the sociological, spiritual and cultural aspects of life are found in human life alone. It is the only aspect which differentiates mankind from all other living organisms on the earth. Therefore, the sociological aspects of human life should be given due consideration. They can be achieved and developed only through the medium of education. Lock has aptly remarked, "Plants are developed by cultivation and men by education". Hence, we may conclude that as shelter is essential for biological life, so is education for sociological life. In short, man's goals become impossible to achieve in the absence of education. MEANING OF EDUCATION Education is a dynamic as well as comprehensive concept, which has a very wide connotation. Since education is related with human life, it is very difficult to ascribe a single meaning to it. The concept of education is like a diamond, which appears to be of different colours when seen from different angles. It is like the concept of the proverbial elephant and the blind man. Various people-a philosopher, psychologist, sociologist, biologist, priest, professor, teacher, shopkeeper, merchant, politician, an artisan, educator, economist and others seem to have their own concept and meaning of education according to their own outlook in life and past experiences. However, the meaning of the word "education" can be understood from its roots in four Latin words, that is, Educare, Educere, Educatum and Educo (Fig. 1.1). FIG. 1.1 Derivation of education. Educare: The term `education' has been derived from the Latin word Educare which means "to nourish", "to bring up", "to raise". So, the meaning of the word "education" is to bring up children physically and mentally. Educere: This is another Latin word from which the word `education' is derived. The word educere implies "to draw out", "to lead out", "to bring forth". Hence, `education' means bringing forth or leading out the inner power of the child, that is, drawing out what is inside the child. Educatum: Latin word educatum denotes "to train", "to teach". Thus, education implies the act of training or teaching the child. Educo: The origin of the word `education' is considered to be the combination from E and Duco. Duco means "I lead" and E stands for "out of". So, education means to draw out or lead out the internal power of man. This is similar to the meaning of the word educere. Thus, education is the drawing out of the inner capacities of the individual to develop his personality to the full extent by training or teaching. NARROW AND WIDER MEANINGS OF EDUCATION In order to understand the concept of education, educational thinkers have interpreted and classified the meaning of education into two main categories, namely, narrow and wider concept of education. Narrow Meaning of Education The narrow meaning of education usually implies imparting information, giving instruction, schooling, training, making people literate, teaching, preparing for a trade or vocation. In the narrow sense, education is confined to school, college and university instruction. The scope of education is very narrow here. Education starts when the child gets admission in the school and ends when he leaves school, college or university. The following definitions of some renowned educationists make the narrow meaning of education more clear. S.S.Mackenzi: "In the narrow sense, education may be taken to mean any consciously directed effort to develop and cultivate powers". James Drever: "Education is a process in which and by which the knowledge, character and behaviour of the young are shaped and moulded". G.H.Thompson: "The influence of the environment on the individual with a view to producing a permanent change in his habits of behaviour, of thoughts and attitude". John Stuart Mill: "The culture which each generation purposefully gives to those who are to be its successors, in order to qualify them for at least keeping up and if possible for raising the level of improvement which has been attained". However, in the narrow sense, we may state that education is anything acquired from formal institutions in the form of certificates or training which enables the individual to carry out a particular task. The following points bring out the meaning more clearly. (i)Education is provided through planned institutions like schools, colleges and universities. (ii)Education is a deliberate, conscious and systematic influence exerted by the matured person (teacher) on the immatured (student). (iii)Education is limited to the teaching of readymade materials. (iv)Education is intentional rather than incidental. (v)Knowledge is the accumulated experience of the human race. (vi)Education is regarded as synonymous with instruction. Wider Meaning of Education In this view, education is a life-long process which starts from the womb and ends in the tomb. It becomes the sum total of experience that the child receives inside and outside the school, through the study of different subjects, through various activities, through the library, the museum, the playground, the workshop or through other agencies. Thus, in a wider sense, education is more than teaching or instruction. Education is regarded as synonymous with the act of living. Accordingly, education is not confined to schools, colleges or universities alone. From the wider meaning of education, we get a new life from education and the life gives us new education. It includes all the knowledge and experiences acquired during infancy, childhood, adolescence, youth, adulthood, through any agency of education namely, school, home, society, church, industry, market, hotel, hospital etc. The wider concept of education has been interpreted by some eminent educationists in the following ways: S.S.Mackenzi: "In the wider sense, education is a process that goes on throughout life, and is promoted by almost every experience in life". M.K.Gandhi: "By education, I mean, the all-round drawing out of the best in child, man-body, mind and soul". W.H.Kilpatrick: "From the broad point of view, all life thoughtfully lived is education". Dumvile: "Education, in its widest sense, includes all the influences which act upon an individual during his passage from cradle to the grave". Edward Thring: "Education is the transmission of life by the living to the living". John Dewey: "Education is the development of all those capacities in the individual which enable him to control his environment and fulfill his possibilities". T.Raymont: "Education is a process of development from infancy to maturity, the process by which, he adapts himself gradually to various aspects of physical, social and spiritual environment". In the widest sense, we may define education as something which is a life-long process of acquiring knowledge through formal or non-formal organizations in the form of certificates or training by which the personality of the individual is prepared and developed to undertake any task and adjust himself with the varying environments in order to achieve the goals in life. A pupil gets one fourth of education from his educator, another fourth by his own intellectual efforts, next fourth from his fellow students and the rest, in the course of time, through life and experience. The wider concept of education is not just the teaching and learning of the three Rs (reading, writing and arithmetic) Thewider meaning of education includes the following features: (i)Education is a life-long process, from infancy to old age or from womb to tomb. (ii)This type of education is acquired through formal, informal and nonformal agencies of education. (iii)It consists of the development of four H, i.e., head, heart, hand and health. (iv)Life and education cannot be separated from each other. (v)All experiences are said to be educative. (vi)Education is synonymous with the act of living. (vii)Education includes all aspects of human life-cultural, domestic, economic, geographical, political, religious and social. INDIAN AND WESTERN MEANING OF EDUCATION The term "education" has been widely discussed and interpreted by different thinkers, philosophers and educationists with reference to its aims, functions and implications. It is a very comprehensive as well as a complex idea. Hence, divergent opinions and views have been expressed by the Indian as well as the Western thinkers about education in different ages with reference to their philosophies, needs and tempo of the social order. Meaning of Education in India According to the ancient Indian educational thinkers, the term shiksha has been derived from the Sanskrit verbal root shas which means "to discipline", "to teach", "to instruct" or "to control". Thus, shiksha means education which denotes the act of teaching, training or instructing. Another term, vidya has also been derived from a Sanskrit verbal root, vid. Vid refers to education which implies knowledge. Hence, disciplining the mind and imparting knowledge, by controlling and teaching the child, are the basic meanings of education. We find four words-siksha, adhyayana, vinaya and prabodha in the Indo- Aryan literature. These words correspond to the modern word `education'. Siksh is found in the Vedic hymns which means "to learn to recite". The word adhyayana found in the Brahmanic Upanisadic and Sutra literature denotes to go near and express the views of pupils going to some Guru (teacher) for education. In the institution, upanayana is the ceremony which refers to taking near, i.e., parents in the ancient period took their children to the Guru (teacher) for their education. The term vinaya denotes to lead out in a particular way. It emphasises the drawing out or leading out and development of the inborn powers of the child. The fourth term prabodha is used by the famous poet Kalidas to express the outcome of education. Prabodha implies `awakening' or `enlightenment' which is created in the child through teaching and learning. Indian thinkers have placed special emphasis upon the development of spiritual aspect of education. Swami Vivekananda says, "Religion is the inner most core of education". In the words of A S.Altekar, "Education has always been regarded in India as a source of illumination and power which transforms and enables our nature by the progressive and harmonious development of our physical, mental, intellectual and spiritual powers and facilities". Education was used as an instrument to enable the individual to rise above and to attain the truth, the beautiful and the good. In fact, education in India passes through four ashramas into which human life has been divided. The first stage brahmacharya ashram is considered as the life of education and preparation. The second stage Grahastya is the life of the householder in which an individual has to execute his social responsibilities. The third stage, vanaprastha, is the life of retirement and meditation for which he has to withdraw himself from the worldly life. The last stage is sanyasa in which an individual cuts off all social and family ties and leads a holy life to attain salvation. Meaning of Education in the West The meaning of education in the West is found in Plato's work. According to him, "education is a life long process starting from the first year of childhood and lasting to the very end of the life". He also points out in his Republic that true education will have the greatest tendency to civilize and humanise people in their relation to one another and to those who are under their protection. Education has been taken as a process of inculcating values. He says, "Now I mean by education that training which is given by suitable habits to the first instincts of virtue in children". His views have been widely accepted in the West as well as in the East. Western Educational Philosophers have generally accepted that the growth of the human child is the essence of education. In the words of Robert R.Rush, "Education is the enhancement or enrichment of personality and the embodiment of universal values". Thus, education is the process of development which means the gradual and continuous progress of mind and body. Through this development, the child acquires: (a) the knowledge of the environment by which he is surrounded; (b) the necessary motor control to fulfil his individual needs; (c) linguistic abilities to enable him to converse; and (d) knowledge of individual and collective relationships. The development of all these elements begins at home. The task of the educator is to encourage it while the child is at school. According to the western educational thinkers, education is a deliberate and organized activity through which the physical, intellectual, aesthetic, moral and spiritual potentialities of the child are developed. It enables the individual as a member of society to lead the fullest and richest life in the earth and attain Moksha (reaching God or liberation) in the world to come after death. DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATION "Education" has been defined by philosophers, thinkers and educationists in different ways according to their philosophy of life gained out of their past experiences. Since, education is related to time and space, philosophers and thinkers, from Socrates to John Dewey in the West and Yajnavalkya to Jiddu Krishnamurti in the East have defined it differently. Indian Views on Education Rig Veda: "Education is something which makes a man self reliant and selfless". Upanishads: "Education is that whose end product is salvation". Bhagavad Gita: "Nothing is more purifying on earth than knowledge". Yajnavalkya: "Education is that which makes a man of good character and useful to the world". Panini: "Human education means the training which one gets from nature". Kautilya: "Education means training for the country and love for the nation". Kannada: "Education means development of self-contentment". Sankaracharya: "Education is the realization of the self and attainment of Moksha (liberation)". Guru Nanak: "Education is self realization and service of the people. It enables an individual to win victory over the five enemies-lust, anger, greed, infatuation and ego" (kam, krodh, lobh, moh, ahankar). Dayanand: "Education is a means for character formation and righteous living". To him, an educated person is healthy and an uneducated person is suffering from the disease of ignorance. Swami Vivekananda: "Education means the manifestation of the divine perfection, already existing in man". Tagore: "Education means enabling the mind to find out that ultimate truth which emancipates us from the bondage of the dust and gives us the wealth, not of things but of inner light, not of power but of love, making this truth its own and giving expression to it". In short, "The widest road leading to the solution of all our problems is education". Mahatma Gandhi: "By Education, I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in the child and man-body, mind and spirit". Aurobindo: "Education is helping the growing soul to draw out that is in itself". Radhakrishnan: "Education means training the intellect, refinement of the heart and discipline of the spirit". Zakir Hussain: "Education is the process of the individual mind getting to its full possible development to realize absolute moral and intellectual value". Jiddu Krishnamurti: "Education in the true sense is helping the individual to be mature and free, to flower greatly in love and goodness". Humayun Kabir: "Education is a dynamic process which in its totality changes with the changing situations and developing circumstances. It enables man to realize higher values of life which are essential for him to become roof and crown of all creations". P.C.Bannerji: "Education is the development of the power of adaptation to an ever changing social environment". A.P.J.Abdul Kalam: "Education is one that fosters capacities such as spirit of enquiry, creativity, entrepreneurial and moral leadership, which are central to nation building in a democracy. We need education which develops in our children these capacities and makes them autonomous learners who are selfdirected and self-controlled". However, the meaning of education has been changing from time-totime and place-to-place. Today, we may define education as anything by which the individual prepares and develops himself to undertake any sort of task and adjust to the varying environments for the purpose of attaining his goals of life. It is a very comprehensive definition of education, which reflects a complete picture of the present system of education in the emerging Indian society. Thus, education is the process of gaining those experiences which prepare the individual for personal, social, spiritual, cultural, aesthetic, political and economic life. Western Views on Education Socrates: "Education means the bringing out of the ideas of universal validity which are latent in the mind of every man. It is dispelling error and discovering truth". Plato: "Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the right moment. It develops in the body and in the soul of the pupil all the beauty and all the perfection which he is capable of". Aristotle: "Education is the creation of a soundbody. It develops man's faculty especially his mind so that he may be able to enjoy the contemplation of supreme truth, goodness and beauty of which perfect happiness essentially consists". Comenius: "All those who are born as human beings need education because they are destined to be real men, not wild beasts, dull animals and clumps of wood". Rousseau: "Education of man commences at his birth before he can speak, before he can understand, he is already instructed. Experience is the fore runner of precept. It is the development from within". Kant: "Education is the development in the individual of all the perfection of which he is capable". Pestalozzi: "Education is natural, harmonious and progressive development of man's innate powers". Froebel: "Education is unfoldment of what is already enfolded in the germ. It is the process through which the child draws out his internal potentialities. It is the cultivation of awareness, love and independence in the child". John Dewey: "Education is the development of all those capacities in the individual which will enable him to control his environment and fulfil his possibilities". T.Raymont: "Education is a process of development from infancy to maturity, the process by which he adapts himself gradually in various ways of his physical and spiritual environment". James Drever: "Education is a process in which and by which knowledge, character, and behaviour of the young are shaped and moulded". Bossing: "Education is conceived to be the adjustment of man to his environment, to the end that most enduring satisfaction may accrue to the individuals and to the society". Adams John: "Education is a conscious and deliberate process in which one's personality acts upon another in order to modify the development of the other by the communication and manipulation of knowledge". T.P.Nunn: "Education is the complete development of the individuality of the child so that man can make an original contribution to human life according to the best of his capacity". Ruskin: "Education does not mean teaching the people what they do not know. It means teaching them to behave as they do not behave". Thompson: "Education is the influence of the environment on the individual with the view to producing a permanent change in his habits, behaviour, thought and attitude". Ross: "Education is the development of valuable personality and spiritual individuality". Brown: "Education is the consciously controlled process whereby changes in behaviour are produced in the person and through the person within the group". William James: "Education is fitting the individual to his physical and social environment". Huxley: "Education is fashioning the will of the individual to enable him to move in harmony with nature". Montaigne: "Education is cultivating manners, behaviour, and judgement than bare and mere liberal learning". Herbert Spencer: "Education is preparing for complete living". Emerson: "Education means controlling mind". Milton: "Education is that which fits a man to perform justly skillfully and magnanimously all the offices, both private, and public of peace and war". Redden: "Education is the deliberate and systematic influence exerted by the matured person (educator) upon the immatured (educand) through instruction, discipline and harmonious development of physical, intellectual, aesthetic, social and spiritual powers of the human being, according to individual and social needs and directed towards the union of the educand with his creator as the final end". FACTORS OF EDUCATION The data of education comprises four factors namely, the child, heredity, environment and time. Child: The child is the foremost important factor in education. Each child is different from the other in physical, mental and social abilities as well as in his interests, aptitudes and attitudes. Hence, his natural development is possible only according to his innate powers. The full development of the child necessitates proper and comprehensive knowledge of his nature. Heredity: The heredity of the child is the combination of mental and physical characteristics. It constitutes the basis of education. The maximum possible development of the child depends upon the potential existing in his innate and inherited qualities. Education can be imparted to a child only according to his inherited qualities. It is not possible to make a child an artist if he has not inherited any aesthetic interest or inclination. Thus, the basis of education is formed by inherited characteristics. Environment: The environment is the third important constituent of education. Every child is born in a family at a particular place and time. So, the upbringing and development of each child takes place in a physical and social environment which plays a vital role in his development. The environmentalists hold the view that as the child gradually comes into contact with the material and social environments, his innate tendencies flower out and his behaviour starts to change step-by-step. They believe that education is a process based on and conditioned by the environment in which the child is brought up. For example, it is the environment which makes a child musician an artist, a teacher, a policeman, a lawyer etc. Time: This is the fourth important factor of education which determines specific activities indulged in by the child during the process of his development. Education should correspond and suit the mental level of the child, otherwise it will mar his mature development and create complexes. Therefore, education to be really effective should correspond to its plans and programmes according to the growth of the child. CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATION From the Indian as well as Western concepts of education, we come to descry the following nature of education: Life-long process: Education is the sequence of learning through the medium of experience which is acquired through formal, non-formal and informal institutions, and continues upto death. Dynamic process: Education is related to human life which will never be static, but always dynamic. Therefore, the nature of education changes according to the changing needs of time, place and society. In the words of John Dewey, "Education is the process of living through a continuous reconstruction of experiences". Individual development: Education is the process of individual development. The all-round development of an individual has seven dimensions, that is, physical, mental, aesthetic, moral, spiritual, social and economic development. It is education which coordinates these seven dimensions of the individual and makes him get rid of animal instincts and be a civilized man. J.S.Mill says, "Whatever helps to shape the human being, to make the human being, what he is or to hinder him from being what he is not-is a part of his education". Develops child's innate power: Education is not a thing to be inserted into the mind of the child from outside, but it helps to develop his innate capacities through outside experiences of the environment. If the child has the faculty of speech, he can become a good speaker with the help of education. Thus, education provides every person with the opportunity of developing his innate power according to his capacities. Gandhi remarks, "By education I mean an all round drawing out of the best in child and man- body, mind and spirit". The Western philosophers such as Pestalozzi and Froebel have emphasised the development of the child's innate power as the characteristic of education. Modifies behaviour: Education helps the individual to bring about a desirable change in his behaviour. In fact, the behaviour of an educated individual is better than that of an uneducated man. If not, the education of the individual will be incomplete and he will be called as a literate rustic. Ruskin says, "You need not educate a man by telling what he knows, but by making him what he is not". Prof. Drever has rightly remarked, "Education is a process in which and by which knowledge, character and behaviour of the young are shaped and moulded". Social adjustment: Education is an important tool which helps the individual in making adjustment with the social environment, that is, with the parents, relatives, friends, teachers and other members of the society. Human personality cannot be balanced unless he is able to adjust himself with every field. Through the process of education the child is taught to adjust himself according to the environment. Bi-polar process: John Adams calls education a bi-polar process. In this process, there is a constant interaction between the teacher and the taught and the impact of personalities like two poles interacting with each other. Ross writes, "Like a magnet, education has two poles, it is a bi-polar process". As such, education becomes a conscious and deliberate process in which one personality acts upon another in order to modify the development of the other by the communication and manipulation of knowledge. It means the direct application of the educator's personality to the personality of the educand through `shared activity' or sharing experiences. Thus, education is a bipolar process in which both the teacher and the student are equally important. In other words, if the teacher instructs, the child follows, if he gives, the student receives in fact the teacher moulds and modifies the behaviour of the child so that the latter develops his personality (Fig. 1.2). FIG. 1.2 Education-bipolar process. Adams has also pointed out the subjective and objective sides of the process of education. Education becomes subjective when the learner does not question the educator. On the other hand, education becomes objective when the learner understands the motives of the educator and questions him or even opposes him and applies his own reasoning. Tri-polar process: Education is also regarded as a tri-polar process involving the interaction of the personality of the educator with that of the educand in a social setting which modifies the behaviour of the educand. John Dewey believes that the process of education cannot even be thought about without social environment. According to him, "All education proceeds by the participation of the individual in the social consciousness of the race". A system of education becomes incomplete in the absence of social environment. J.E.Adamson proposes the tri-polar theory of education. According to him, the whole environment of the individual becomes the source of education (Fig. 1.3). FIG. 1.3 Education-tripolar process. The pragmatists consider man as a social animal and he learns everything while living in society. So, social environment is the third dimension which influences the personality of the child. In this way, the process of education consists of three poles-(i) teacher, (ii) child and (iii) society. Hence, the teacher consciously designs and plans educational experiences in the light of social environment and directs the child's instincts, urges, impulses and tendencies towards the socially desirable channels. The three poles (teacher, child and society) should actively participate in the process of education so that education system could be completed successfully. Direct and indirect processes: Education is said to be a direct process when the teacher and the taught are in direct contact. It is an indirect process when pupils receive education (non-formal and informal) from a distance. Enrichment of experiences: It is regarded as an important characteristic of education. Generally, every individual has his own range of experiences which can be directed towards the goal of life through the process of education. Thus, education enriches human experiences which maybe right or wrong. Goal attainment: The main feature of the concept of education is helping the individual to fulfil his goals in life. It maybe put forth thus: Education is anything by which the personality of the individual is developed and prepared to undertake any task and adjust with surroundings in order to fulfil his basic necessities and objectives of life. In short, education is anything which satisfies our needs and fulfils our desires. Theoretical and practical in nature: The social, religious, moral, cultural, economic and intellectual knowledge can be acquired from the theoretical and practical forms of education through school, college or university. Thus, education provides both theoretical as well as practical knowledge. Demand of modern age: We consider that education is one of the basic necessities of life like food, clothing and shelter, because it seems to be very important for sociological life as shelter is for biological life. Sociological life is very important to develop national integration and international understanding in the minds of younger generation. The need for education in agricultural, industrial, technical and professional fields has been increasing. As a result, adult education, social education, women education, population education, environmental education, etc. have emerged in order to meet the demands for different professionals in the modern age. Scientific nature of education: The modern age is a scientific age. Education is mostly based on science and technology. In fact, in the whole life of man, school, college and university have become laboratories of education. Education induces the desire to undertake researches in many topics pertaining to different aspects of human life in social, political, religious, moral, cultural, economic and aesthetic areas. The nature of education is artistic in nature. In this sense, education helps to design the personality of the child. The teacher is an artist who moulds the child into a better, purer and nobler person. Education helps the child in acquiring knowledge, integrated growth, social and economic efficiency in order to lead his life in the scientific age successfully. Instrument of social change: Education is a powerful instrument for social reconstruction. It brings about a remarkable change in social, political, cultural, religious, moral, spiritual, scientific, economic, and aesthetic aspects of human life. No change occurs in any society in the absence of education. Hence, education is the most important invention of mankind by which the society is being shaped and moulded in a desirable way. Social change is one of the important characteristics of present education. TYPES OF EDUCATION Education is far wider and more inclusive than schooling. We acquire education from our experiences outside the school. R.C.Lodge says, "All experience is said to be educative. The bite of a mosquito, the taste of water melon, the experience of falling in love, of flying in an aeroplane, of being in a storm in a small boat-all such experiences have a direct educative effect on us". Thus, education includes all the influences which act upon an individual during his passage from cradle to grave. This wider meaning of education includes all the meanings attached to different types of education. Generally, we have three types of education on the basis of scope and meaning namely, formal, informal and non-formal education. Formal education: This type of education is consciously and deliberately planned and imparted in educational institutions like school, college or university in order to modify the behaviour of the individual. It is provided according to certain rules and regulations through co-curricular activities, planning of monthly or yearly programmes, time of opening, time of teaching the subjects and time of closing. It follows a well-defined and systematic curriculum, method of teaching, textbooks and discipline. This type of education is given in a well-organized way by the teachers who are qualified and trained and able to bring about all-round development of the child according to the needs of the individual and the society. It prepares the child for examination and provides him certificates or degrees. Informal education: There is no specialised agency to impart this type of education. It is not pre-planned or deliberate but it is a spontaneous and quite incidental. The child gets this education, consciously or unconsciously, while he moves and lives in the community. He goes on learning, throughout his life, through the medium of experiences which maybe pleasant or unpleasant. The press, the family, the community and the playgrounds are some of the agencies of informal education. Usually, this kind of education takes place at home, in the temple, mosque, church, gurudwara, social agencies, public place and in the political meetings. Every person plays the role of a teacher as the occasions demand. This kind of education is also to be long process and it takes place whenever people learn, work and live together. In other words, such education takes place in the social environments. It is entirely different from both formal and non-formal education. That is, no time table, curriculum, classroom teaching examination and rules and regulations. Nonformal education: Non-formal education is one of the modern types of education which falls in between formal and informal education as a life- long process. It is more elastic and the pupil who drops out of the school or those employed, without proper education, illiterate, financially poor, housewives, residing a long distance away from educational institution, and who want to improve their skill can make use of this kind of education. Definitions of nonformal education: A number of definitions of non-formal education are as follows: Bremwork: "Non-formal education differs from formal education from the proximity to immediate action, work and the opportunity to put learning to use". Philip H.Combs: "Non-formal education is a residual category. It includes all organized systematic educational activity carried on outside the formal education" McCall: "Non-formal education is the entire range of learning experiences outside the regular graded school system". Henderson: "Non-formal is far wider and more inclusive than school which imparts wider experiences out of school". Harbuism: "Non-formal education is the only means of filling the gap between the `schooled' and `unschooled' population" Paulston: "Non-formal education includes any structured systematic, nonschool education and training activities of relatively short duration, where sponsoring agencies seek concrete behavioural changes in fairly distinct target population". International education commission: "Non-formal education is a life long process and it emphasized the informal and non-formal education for those who left education at certain stage of life and now they have felt the necessity". Characteristics of nonformal education: The prominent characteristic of non- formal education are as follows: Free from formal education: Non-formal education is free from all rules and regulations that followed in formal education system. It is non-formal education in which attendance of students is not compulsory. It provides freedom for the students in selecting the subjects and time for the study. In fact, learning takes place in the students according to their interest, ability and needs. Open system: It is an open system of education which is flexible and out of rigid rules and regulations. This type of education is open to all irrespective of their castes, creeds, colours, place etc. Admission is not made on the basis of mark and money, but educational qualification. Organized education: It is an organized and systematised education like formal education with fixed curriculum and examination. Life-long process: It is a life-long process integrated with life and work. It is based on the life and environment of the individual. Intended for all ages: It is meant for all age groups. People of any sections of society and at any stage can pursue their education through non-formal system. Suitable alternative: It is useful and a suitable alternative to formal education. It is a panacea for those who abandon their education and reside in places where higher educational opportunities are not available and they can fulfil their desire for education. It helps them to learn while they earn. Means of filling the gap: Harbuism says, "Non-formal education is the only means of filling the gap between the `schooled' and unschooled population". It falls between the formal and informal education. Universalisation of education: Non formal education brings about universalisation of professional, vocational and technical education. It also meets the requirements of higher education of people who could not get the opportunity in their early stages. Self-motivational: Non-formal education is naturally self-motivational. The growth of a learner motivates him to pursue higher education under nonformal education which makes him confident and self-reliant. Main agencies involved: Multiple agencies are involved in the process of non-formal education. For instance, mass media, open schools, open universities, directorate of distance education etc. act as the agencies through which non-formal education is imparted at national and international levels. Adoptability: Non-formal system of education adopts suitable curriculum and methodologies so that it fulfils the requirement of the learners. Sources of Different Types of Education Every type of education has its sources or agencies by which the individual and the society are educated and trained in such a way as to lead a meaningful life as a civilized man in the world (Fig. 1.4). FIG. 1.4 Circle of total education. EDUCATION DIFFERENTIATED FROM RELATED TERMS School is one of the formal agencies for imparting systematic education. As a result, both school and education go together. Ross says, "The schools are devised by civilized man for the purpose of aiding in the preparation of the young for well-adjusted and efficient membership of society". According to T.P.Nunn, "The school must be thought of primarily not as a place of learning where certain knowledge is learnt but as a place where the young are disciplined in certain form of activity". Some people think that education is related only to schools, colleges and universities. But there is a lot of difference between education and schooling. TABLE 1.1 Formal and Non-formal Education TABLE 1.2 Formal and Informal Education TABLE 1.3 Education and Schooling Comparison of Education and Training Training is a part of education. It means to attain skill or proficiency in a specific field. For example, after passing BA, BSc, or MA, MSc, one has to get training in education (DTEd or BEd) to become a teacher. Similarly, a doctor has to take training in a hospital after getting MBBS or BAMS, or BHMS, or BDS examination for becoming an efficient doctor. Education develops the personality of an individual whereas training prepares him to be successful in the task that he undertakes. TABLE 1.4 Education and Training Comparison of Education and Instruction Instruction brings about behavioural changes in the individual. It is necessary in learning because through this knowledge is developed. But all aspects of personality that is, knowledge, affection (feeling) and activity (doing) are developed through education. Conversations and discussions take place in the process of instruction in which arguments are given and conclusions are drawn. Instruction is a part of education. It is related to understanding in which discrimination is made between what is true and what is false. In the words of Dr. R.A.Sharma, "Instruction is the process of influencing learners towards some goals". According to Robertson, "Instruction in the class and education ends only with life". Education differs from instruction in its scope, meaning, method, curriculum etc. Let us see the difference between education and instruction (Table 1.5). TABLE 1.5 Education and Instruction MODERN CONCEPTS OF EDUCATION An attempt has been made here to grasp the modern concept of education by a comparative study of the old and modern concepts of education. With the help of this comparative study, we discern the following differences between the old and the new concepts of education: Meaning of education: The modern concept of education seeks to develop or train the child according to his interests, inclinations, capacities and needs in a social environment. Education, according to the old concept, was taken to mean as a process to thrust readymade knowledge into the mind of a child considering it to be an empty vessel. In short, modification of individual behaviour was the meaning of the old concept of education whereas the present education develops and prepares the personality of the individual to survive and adjust with the surroundings. Thus, the meaning of the modern concept of education is based on philosophical, psychological and sociological aspects. Aim of education: The aim of ancient education is centered around the mental, spiritual and moral development of the child. It prepares the child to lead a holy life for salvation. Ancient education and its aims were entirely based on ancient philosophy of idealism which held faith in the eternal values and the spiritual world. On the contrary, modern educationists, philosophers and thinkers lay stress on the development of physical, mental, spiritual, social, vocational, moral, emotional and aesthetic aspects. Thus, the aim of modern education is to bring about a total development in the child and attain social efficiency and dynamism. Today, the aim of education is to bring about social and economic development, build up national integration, develop international understanding and prepare world citizens for the progress of the whole world. Curriculum: The ancient curriculum included and emphasised those subjects and activities promoting mental, spiritual and moral development. The subjects prescribed in the curriculum were not integrated and they were rigid and mostly confined to classroom activities and experience. While constructing the curriculum, interests, inclinations, capacities and needs of the child were not taken into consideration. On the other hand, modern curriculum is flexible, varied and progressive according to the conditions of the ever changing and growing needs of the child and the modern society. It bestows importance on both theoretical and practical knowledge which is confined to classroom and outside school activities and experiences. It includes co-curricular and extracurricular activities in order to bring out a whole personality development in the child. Teaching methods: Old methods of teaching laid stress on cramming and it stimulated rote memorisation. Different philosophers and educationists advocated different methods of teaching according to their own interests and the nature of subjects. They recommended lecture, discussion and question answer methods. But the modern educationists and philosophers not only condemn the ancient methods of teaching, but introduce various lively and effective methods according to the interest, inclination and capacities of the child and also the nature of subjects. They follow play way, learning by doing, learning by experience, project method, observation, experimental method, problem solving, travelling etc. These modern methods of teaching stimulate motivation, interest and attention of the child and develop fellow- feeling and cooperation in him, which is essential for community living. Discipline: Ancient system of education emphasised the use of rod and punishment to enforce obedience and discipline in children. Freedom was restricted to the child. Control and strict discipline were recommended by the ancient educationists. They adhered to the Biblical verse "Spare the rod spoil the child" while punishing the child. But this type of corporal punishment and enforcing discipline through repression has been vehemently criticised by all modern educationists. They advocate self- discipline and social discipline, leading to natural obedience. They stand in favour of providing freedom to the child which enables him to grow in the natural environment. Examination: The old system of education encouraged essay type questions which led to cramming and rote memorisation. Written test was conducted to evaluate the mental development of the child. On the contrary, modern educationists have given up the old pattern of evaluation and developed modern techniques to evaluate as well as examine the achievement of the child. Such techniques include objective tests, short answer tests, progress reports, cumulative records, interviews and practical performances. Agencies of education: Ancient educationists regarded that school was the only agency for educating the children. According to modern views all formal, informal and non-formal agencies are imparting education. The non- formal agencies play a vital role in the universalisation of education. Teacher: In ancient education, teachers occupied the most important position in the educational process. They were respected as co-workers of God, were called `Guru' and placed next to God. But in modern times, a teacher is considered as friend, guide and philosopher. However in the post modern society, the status of teachers has come down because of their poor quality and the mushroom growth of profit oriented educational institutions. Child: According to the ancient concept of education, a child played a subsidiary role and had been treated very strictly. He was a passive recipient of whatever the teacher instructed. Education was teacher and curriculum centred. But the modern system of education is child centred. The curriculum is constructed and methods of teaching are followed according to the interests, inclination, capacities and the needs of child. The child is freely allowed to interact actively with the teacher and his classmates to achieve effective learning which promotes his own development and that of the society. School: In the ancient period, school was the only source to educate the child. It served as a shop for selling education (knowledge). It adopted rigid rules and regulations, pre-planned and fixed curriculum and methods of teaching. Teachers were concerned with the input and bothered little about the output. On the contrary, modern educationists regard school as a miniature of society emphasising more on output in comparison with input. It is a place where social qualities are cultivated and developed in the child. Education as a discipline: According to the ancient concept, education was meant for only getting knowledge and training to lead a holy life. But now education is a separate discipline of deep study, investigation and research like other disciplines-Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Economics etc. Today, it is a very important process of human development in all fields of human activities. SCOPE OF EDUCATION Scope of education refers to the breadth, range, extent, comprehensiveness and variety of learning experiences to be provided in the educational process. Education is a life-long process. In fact, everyday and every minute step-bystep we learn from every source of formal, non-formal and informal organizations. Hence, the scope of education is very wide and long. It is as wide as the world and as long as the history of mankind on the earth. In this sense, the entire life of an individual comes under the purview of education. That is, the aesthetic, cultural, social, spiritual, mental, physical and vocational development of the individual is involved. The following subject matter maybe included under the scope of education. Educational philosophy: The meaning, nature, purpose and content of education of a country is largely determined by the philosophy of that country. Philosophy of education emerged as one of the separate and newest disciplines in the twentieth century. Educational philosophy is the combination of philosophy and education. They are related like flower and its fragrance. Under this title, various philosophical thoughts and their influence on education and life are studied. Philosophy determines all aspects of education-meaning and nature of education, aims, curriculum, method of teaching, nature of textbook, nature of discipline, role of a teacher and school environment. Thus, educational philosophy is the philosophy applied in the field of education for solving various issues related to it. Educational sociology: Sociology of education maybe defined briefly as a study of relation between education and society. Education is an activity which goes on in the society. Hence, the aims, curriculum, methods of teaching, nature of discipline etc. depend on the nature of the society in which it functions. We study the society and its impact on education, and the impact of education on culture and society. The sociological basis is merged with education in order to achieve the objective of socialisation of an individual through education. This branch of study deals with the aim of education, methods of teaching, curriculum, administration, school environment and nature of discipline. Educational psychology: Psychology has been considered as one of the most influencing factors which affect the process of education in different ways. The child faces a number of problems related to education and development. The solution to his problems requires to be sought out with the help of psychology. Educational psychology studies various stages of physical, social, mental and emotional development of a child. Learning theories of psychology are applied in the teaching-learning environment for making the learning possible. It also deals with the problems related to personality, intelligence, memory adjustment and understanding of a child. The teachers at present should be equipped with those psychological skills which are needed for the successful guidance of learning adjustment and growth of the child. Educational technology: This branch of study helps the teacher to achieve the most with the least possible time, energy and resources by applying various teaching techniques. The mind of the child is a growing organism. Hence, the teachers follow different techniques of teaching based on the nature of the subject matter or psychology of the learning process. The way of presenting the lesson is essential to develop the interest and attention of the pupils. Educational administration: Administrative functions are concerned primarily with the material facilities and the operation of the schools. The supervisory functions are related with improving the learning situation. Success of the process of education depends entirely on the efficient administration. In this regard, principles of educational administration, supervision and control of schools, appointment of teaching and non- teaching staff, qualifications and duties of teachers and evaluation of school performance are studied, and reforms and changes are made for the effective performance. Educational measurement and evaluation: The evaluation work is a supplement to the whole educational process. Under this division, we study why and how evaluation in education is done, how much degree of achievement maybe guaranteed for success and how much degree of error in measurement is acceptable. Comparative education: Comparative education helps us to modify, reform, reorient and improve our own educational system in the light of the system followed in foreign countries. It is a study of cross cultural comparison to the structure, operation, methods, aims and achievements of various educational systems and practices of different countries of the world. Special education: Special education refers to the methods of imparting education to deviant groups of the society-handicapped or backward and talented or superiors. The relative importance of special and integrated education is also studied under this division. History and problems of education: History of education comes under the scope of education in which we study the nature and patterns of education from the ancient period to the twenty-first century and their related problems. As a result, we understand the gradual development of education during different periods. It helps us to find out a suitable system of education according to the changing needs of the society. Other fields of study: Education plays a dynamic role in any dynamic society. As a consequence, new subjects of studies are coming under the jurisdiction of education. Some of them are (i) Education in the Emerging Indian Society; (ii) Non-formal Education; (iii) Professional and Technical Education; (iv) Library Education; (v) Education and Vocational Guidance; (vi) Audio-Visual Education, (vii) Basic Education, (viii) Environmental Education; (ix) Health Education; (x) Measurements, Evaluation and Statistics; (xi) Fundamental of Teaching Practice; (xii) Socially Useful Productive Work. Since the scope of education is very wide, it is not possible on the part of the individual to become perfect in all fields of education. Therefore, students will have to specialise themselves in different fields of education based on their needs and interests. IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION Education is the wealth of the nation and power of the people. The garden of life will be colourless and without fragrance in the absence of education. It is education which fashions and models man to become fit for society and differentiates him from all other biotic organisms in the earth. Aristotle says, "Educated men are as much superior to uneducated as the living are to the dead". Education has become an essential virtue for man to live and lead a civilized life. Diogenes is of the opinion that, "Education is a controlling grace to the young, consolation to the old, wealth to the poor and ornament to the rich". Education makes man perfect. Dayanand says, "Educated person is healthy and uneducated person is suffering from disease of ignorance". It is true that this world would have been enveloped in the darkness of ignorance, if it had not been illuminated by the light of education. The host of scientists, philosophers and educators has explained the needs and importance of education in a rational and scientific way. They present the following cogent arguments in favour of education as the most essential factor for human development: Biological necessity: Education is a biological necessity for man. He is not an animal which learns all that is necessary for his future life. For instance, a calf needs no training to run or jump after its birth. A kitten very soon learns how to catch mice without education. But a human child would die if not properly attended to. In fact, the new born infant is a helpless human being and he learns to protect himself from harm only with the help of others. He will remain motionless, speechless and will not struggle for existence in the absence of proper instruction and training. As he grows older, he is influenced by formal, informal and non-formal agencies of education, which develop his physical, mental, emotional, social and vocational feelings. In this way, education develops in the child a sense of maturity and responsibility by bringing in him the desired changes according to the needs and demands of an ever changing society. Thus, education develops the individual like a flower, which spreads its fragrance all over the environment. Sociological necessity: Animals learn a few tricks and tasks from their parents and become self sufficient. But it is different in the case of a human child. He has to assimilate a vast treasure of cultural heritage which cannot be transmitted to him biologically. The things learnt by one generation do not automatically pass on to another or ensuing generation. Hence, for each generation education is a must otherwise, human race would lapse into barbarism. The acquisition of knowledge, skill, attitude, character, aesthetic sense, moral sense, and creativity by humanity makes education a sociological necessity for the preservation, protection, and promotion of culture. The demands on education are greater than it had been in the past to make justice, peace, well-being and progress as the main characteristics of modern civilization. Economic necessity: Education is a powerful tool which turns man into a manpower. It not only improves the working efficiency but also increases the productivity of the individual. In other words, it enables the individual to find any sort of task or job or self employment, which helps to stand on his leg. In short, it prepares the people for life. It is seen in the present society that people give more importance to the study of those subjects like Science, Medicine, Law, Engineering, Computer and Technical Courses and Management which makes them self-sufficient and vocationally efficient. In this way economic needs of the individual can be met only by different types of education. Therefore, education is considered as an important wealth next to health. Global necessity: Modern inventions and discoveries in communication and transports have shrunk the world into a `small village' called global village. As a result, an Indian, a German or an American is not considered as a member of his country alone but he is a citizen of the world. This trend can be developed among the citizens of the different countries only through the medium of education. In fact, education develops broad mindedness, removes narrowness, and leads to a global thinking that is, `live together'. In this regard, education is more important than any other wealth. Human capacity for learning: By nature a human child possesses a unique capacity for learning. He possesses potentialities for speech, thinking, reflection, judgement, scientific curiosity and other traits. These potentialities need to be developed through training and education for a long period. On the other hand these capacities will be dormant, unused and undeveloped in the absence of education. Impressionability of the child: Experience can be acquired by the human being during his adult life. We attach importance to the early life for imparting education. This is because a child's mind is more elastic and impressionable during the earlier years than during adulthood. In the absence of proper training and education in the early years, habit formation in the adult becomes a problem. Hence, imparting right education during childhood should be emphasised. Economic development and national-international understanding: The economic development of a country is determined by its human resource development which is influenced by the quality of education available to them. Education plays a vital role in economic development, which can be achieved through world peace, freedom, justice, safety for all, equalisation of education, population control etc. Education strengthens national integration and fosters international understanding which are essential for the progress of a nation. Education also helps us to invent and discover, new machines, tools, and medicines which increase the production of goods and services, and prevent the people from diseases. Thus, education is essential in all walks of human life. As education is one of the basic necessities for individual and social life, we place it next to food, clothing and shelter. We can conclude that shelter is essential for biological life as education is for sociological life. CONCLUSION Education is the matchless weapon which fashions and models the mankind socially, culturally, spiritually, aesthetically, vocationally and economically fit for existence in the earth. It is the widest road leading to find out solutions for the problems of individuals and helping them reach their destination. Hence, education is considered as one of the basic and most important necessities of human life. In fact, all types of education namely, formal, nonformal and informal are very essential in the modern age to bring about proper growth and development of the individual and the society. Therefore, we can conclude with the words of Comenius, who says, "All who are born as human beings need education because, they are destined to be real men, not wild beasts, dull animals and clumps of woods". Today education plays a very important role for biological, sociological, spiritual, cultural, aesthetical and economical aspects of human life. INTRODUCTION The functions of education are to help in the growth of a helpless young animal into a happy, moral and efficient human being. In fact, the main concern of education is the development of man. Since education is an integral part of human life, its field is very vast and complex. It includes all activities and experiences which prepare the individual for life. We know that, the nature of such activities changes according to time and circumstance and even from country-to-country. As a result, no fixed meaning of education, its functions and aims can be determined for all countries in the world. That is why, different scholars, thinkers, and educationists differ about the meaning of education, its functions and aims. MEANING, FUNCTIONS AND AIMS OF EDUCATION It is very difficult to differentiate between the meaning of education, its functions and aims as these three factors are so closely interrelated with one another. However, we can say, "what is education" is the meaning of education; "what education does" is the function of education; and "what education should do" is the aim of education. The main function of education is to prepare and develop the child for future life. In the words of John Dewey, "Education is not the preparation for life, but life itself." According to Daniel Webster, "The function of education is to discipline feelings, to control emotions, to stimulate motivations and to develop religious sentiments". We consider that the function of education is what it performs to the individuals and the society to control the environment for their better living as social beings. M.L.Jack has stated that though there is plenty of work for education, its prime task is to transform original evil into acquired good. The main theme of education is to enable the child to think for himself, to respect hard work, to have good fellowship, to have taste and sense of eternal realities. Ralph Borsodi considers the function of education as "the humanization of mankind". In fact, education has to discharge a number of functions towards the individual as well as towards the society. The functions of education have been classified under three heads namely: General Functions of Education Functions of Education in Human Life Functions of Education in National Life General Functions of Education All-round development of a personality: All round personality development of the child is very essential for a balanced and harmonious development which enables him to lead personal as well as social life successfully. Hence, the main function of education is bringing about development in the physical, mental, spiritual, social, cultural, emotional and aesthetical aspects of the individual. When emphasising this function, Mahatma Gandhi has stated thus, "By education, I mean an all round drawing out of the best in the child and man-body, mind and soul." It is an undeniable fact that a healthy mind lies only in a healthy body, and body alienated from soul is dead. Likewise, a healthy life lies only in the balanced development of the child. Development of innate powers: Almost all educationists and psychologists consent that each child is endowed with some inherent tendencies (innate powers) like love, affection, curiosity, reasoning, imagination and self respect. Hence, the important function of education is to develop these powers in the child in order to prepare him for the future life. According to Pestalozzi, "Education is a natural, harmonious and progressive development of man's innate powers". Prof. Ross also emphasises this function of education by saying "Education consists in leading out the innate knowledge, virtues, and powers of the child, making the potential actual". Modification of behaviour: Another important function of education is to develop the moral qualities in the child and build his character in order to modify his behaviour in a desirable way. In this regard, education transforms the behaviour of a person from `instinctive behaviour' to `human behaviour'. Prof. Drever says, "Education is a process in which and by which the knowledge, character and behaviour of the young are shaped and moulded". In the words of Dr. Johnson, "It is education which makes the man, a good man or a bad man according to its contents, its nature and its methods". Sublimation of instincts: Every infant is born with some basic instincts which direct and mould his activities. Hence, the function of education is controlling, redirecting, and sublimating the inborn instincts in a desirable way. Otherwise the child will not be able to behave properly in the society. Without education, such transformation will not take place in the child. Daniel Webster has rightly remarked, "Through education, the feelings are to be disciplined, the passions are to be restrained, true and worthy motives are to be inspired". Preparation for adult life: The function of education is to prepare the individual for the future life. The responsibilities of the child increase with age. When he grows up, he needs a job to support himself and his family. He is expected to develop a good social relation with his relatives, friends, neighbours, and the people at large. The vocational and social efficiencies are taught to him through formal, informal and non-formal education. According to T.P.Nunn, "Education is the complete development of individuality so that a man makes an original contribution to human life according to the best of his capacity". As the child is the father of man, he has to perform social, political, and domestic duties in future. For this, education prepares him to lead a responsible life in the society. According to John Dewey, "Education is not preparation for life, but life itself. It is the process of living through a continuous construction of experiences which develop all those capacities in the individual, which will enable him to control his environment and fulfil his responsibilities". We can, therefore, say that the function of education is preparing and developing the personality of an individual to undertake any kind of task and to adjust to his environment for achieving his basic necessities and objectives of life. Enrichment of experiences: This is said to be an important function of education in the modern age. In fact, every individual has his own range of experience which may or may not be useful. But such experiences are directed towards the goal of life only through the process of education. Character building: Character building or formation is an important function of education. An individual is evaluated by the society on the basis of his qualities. That is why Swami Vivekananda says, "We want that education by which character is formed". Inculcation of social feelings: Man is a social animal. He has to live in a society. This is because, he has to develop himself in and through the society. He has to help others in the society in which he lives. For this purpose, inculcation of social feelings in the child is essential. It is education which alone can inculcate the social feelings, spirit of social service and social qualities such

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