Rural Sociology Lecture Notes PDF

Definitions, nature of rural sociology 1. Sociology Introduction: The term sociology was coined by Auguste Comte (1789-1875) who is often referred as the father of sociology who named it from two words, of which one is Latin word ‘socius’ meaning companion and the other is...

Definitions, nature of rural sociology 1. Sociology Introduction: The term sociology was coined by Auguste Comte (1789-1875) who is often referred as the father of sociology who named it from two words, of which one is Latin word ‘socius’ meaning companion and the other is Greek word ‘logos’ meaning speech or reasoning. SOCIOLOGY SOCIUS LOGOS (Latin) (Greek) Companion Speech or Reasoning The etymological (based on the origin of the word) meaning of sociology is thus ‘the science of society’. Sociology has been referred to as systematized knowledge in the study of human social relationships. The content or subject matter of sociology is not literary writing as is assured (thought) by many people. It is a detailed and systematic study of society. There are animal societies also but sociology studies only human societies. Human beings have progressed to a large extent and therefore, sociology is used for the systematic study of the human being in group relations. Sociology is concerned with people and without people or human beings there cannot be sociology, it cannot be in isolation as its main emphasis is on their relationship with other persons. They stay in groups and therefore the sociologists study people organized in families, friendship groups, temples, schools, industrial plants and in other organizations. The fundamental process in any society is interaction or social interaction. In short sociology studies the social behavior of people, their different social groups and the intra and interrelationship of these social groups. Definitions  Sociology is the web or tissue of human interaction and interrelationship – Ginsburg  Sociology is the study of human beings in their group relations. As such it studies the interaction within and between groups of people - Chitamber.  Sociology in its broadest sense may be said to be the study of interactions arising from the association of living beings - Gillin and Gillin.  Sociology is the science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social man - Max Weber. The common idea underlying them all is that sociology is concerned with human relationships. Its subject matter is society rather than individual, though the individual cannot be left utterly out of account. The teaching of sociology as a separate discipline started in 1876 in the United states, in 1889 in France, in 1907 in Great Britain, after World War I in Poland and Sweden.  Rural Sociology 1.3.1. Definitions According to F. Stuard the sociology of rural life is a study of rural population, rural social organization and the social processes operative in rural society. According to Desai (1978), Rural Sociology is the science of rural society. “The sociology of rural life is a study of rural population, rural social organization and the rural social processes operative in rural society.” - F. S. Chapin Rural sociology is the study of human relationships in rural environment - Bertrand Rural sociology is a branch of sociology. It is made up of two terms rural and sociology that is science of rural society. It is the study of the sociology of life in the rural environment, which systematically studies the rural communities to discover their conditions and tendencies and formulate the principles of progress as the term implies. It is limited to the study of various aspects of rural society. So, it is clear that rural sociology is related to the organized and scientific study of the life of rural people and their personal inter-relationships. Scope of rural sociology Each village in India lived almost an independent self sufficient social and economic existence. That was the unique agrarian socio-economic structure of India. This self sufficiency was disrupted in British period by foreign rulers. In social life the joint family systems, the caste, the village panchayat were gradually replaced by British laws (e.g) revenue, judicial, executive etc., Introduction of modern communication and transport accelerated the above process. Every aspect of village life, social, economic, political and cultural experienced a steady transformation. Thus changes made an agrarian economy into an acute crisis. The rural sociology studies the various problems concerning the rural society and rural life. The problems that fall within the scope of the study of the rural sociology are: i. Rural social life: Rural Sociology as the name itself indicates is the scientific study of the rural social life. It studies the rural society of rural life in all its aspects. In fact this basic thing is the subject matter or scope of rural sociology. ii. Rural social organizations: While studying the rural society, rural sociology makes a study of all the problems of various rural social organization such as Red Cross Society, Co-operative movement etc. iii. Rural social institutions: No study of rural sociology shall be complete unless the rural social institutions like family, neighbourhood, marriage, caste, religion, economic and educational institutions are studied. iv. Rural Social process: In rural society, different process like co-operation, competition etc, will go on. The study of rural society shall not be complete unless all these social processes are studied thoroughly and properly in a scientific manner. v. Social control and social change in rural social setup: While studying the rural environment and complexities of the rural social set up, the factors of social control and social change have to be studied properly. They can be studied under rural sociology. The urban life influences the rural life. This in fact is very much responsible for social change. Factors of social control and social change form part of the scope of the study of rural sociology. vi. Rural planning and reconstruction: The rural society needs reconstruction. It has to be done in a planned manner. Proper guidance is provided by the scientific study of the rural sociology is to provide guidance to the institutions that are engaged in the task of rural reconstructions and planning of rural society. Therefore the rural planning and reconstructions form a subject matter of the study of rural sociology. vii. Religion and culture in rural society: In rural society religion plays an important role. Cultural difference in rural society is typical. Rural sociology studies all the aspects of religion and culture in the rural social setup. viii. Rural problems and rural community: Rural problems have to be viewed not from an isolated angle but from a comprehensive point of view. Problems of the rural community are a part of the problems of the society as a whole and they have to be viewed in this very context. ix. Difference between rural and urban society: The study of rural society shall not be complete unless the difference that exists between rural society and the urban society is studied in a proper and scientific manner. Thus rural sociology studies the village society, so its scope is very wide. Government agencies, scientists, welfare organizations etc. are now focusing their attention on the development of rural society. Thus, it becomes necessary for any development worker, scientist, administrator and planner to study the rural societies. Further, countries which has agriculture as main occupation must have the well established rural sociology faculties. India has been described as a country of villages. In India, about 75 per cent of the population lives in about six million villages. After independence both the central and state governments are launching many rural development programmes and there is wider scope for rural sociology in India. Nature of rural sociology Rural sociology attempts at scientific study of the rural social phenomena. It cannot be a science like natural sciences, say, physics, chemistry or biology but it is certainly as science. Generally the subject which applies a scientific method is called a science. From this point of view, rural sociology is a science. According to Smith "thus the question of what is and what is not science resolves differences into the questions of whether or not the scientific method has been employed". Scientific method is that organized systematized methodology through which the collection and classification of data are made according to the definite standards. This scientific method consists of the followings stages: a) Selection of problem b) Formulation of hypothesis c) Observations d) Description e) Classification f) Generalization. Rural sociology is a science Having studied the science and scientific method, we now proceed to study the nature of rural sociology. Whether rural sociology is a science or not can be only when we study the methods applied by it and certain factors on its methodology, Generally it is believed that rural sociology employs the scientific method. It can be determined on the basis of the followings facts. a. Use of scientific method It is a uniform fact that rural sociology employs the scientific method. Almost methods of scientific study namely observation, interview schedule and questionnaire method, case history method, statistical method etc., are employed the study of rural sociology. Like other sciences, in rural sociology also generalization is formulated on the basis of accepted facts. b. Factual study Like other sciences rural sociology is also a factual study. It studies the social events. social relationship and process in a factual manner. It also studies and analyses the facts and the underlying general principles and theories. From this consideration also, the rural sociology is by nature, a science. c. Discovery of cause and effect Like other science rural sociology formulates its theories and laws on the basis of cause and effect relationship. d. Universal law The laws formulated by rural sociology are universal in nature because they, under normal and similar conditions, prove to be correct and produce the same results. When there is change in the circumstances there is change in the laws, which is true of other sciences as well. Thus, from this point of view, rural sociology is also a science. e. Predications Since the laws formulated by rural sociology are based on cause and effect relationships, it is possible to predict the results. It means that in certain conditions, the results shall be the same. On the basis of the conditions enumerated above, it can be said that rural sociology is by nature, a science. Rural sociology is not a science There are certain objections against the scientific nature of rural sociology they are as follow: a. Lack of objectivity While studying the rural sociology and its problems, the investigator, continues to remain a part of the society that he is studying. Because he is a being, he has his own ideas and is also influenced by the subject matter. That is why. it is not possible to have objectivity in the study of rural sociology as in the case of natural sciences. b. Lack of laboratory  Rural sociology is not studied in laboratories as the natural science. Because of this it is not possible to verify and test the theory and principles of rural sociology like the principles of natural science. c. Lack of measurements In natural sciences, there are definite and standard measurements through. which it is possible to measure and weigh different units. Grams, centimeters, meters etc., are the measurements through which the subject matter of naturalv. science can be measured. But there are no such measurements for measuring the units of the rural sociology. Because of lack of measurements the results that are put forward by the rural sociology are some times not very dependable. d. Lack of exactness Rural sociology lacks exactness. It is not possible to follow its laws and principles universally as the principles of natural sciences. They lack the exactness because of which, they are not acceptable at every point. Due to this weakness, rural sociology is not regarded as science. j. Lack of prediction Because of the lack of objectivity and exactness, the principles that are ro. formulated by the rural sociology are not always correct. That is why on the basis f these principles and laws, predictions are not possible. In natural sciences this is not the case. They are on the basis of rules and regulations and principles, hence prediction is always possible. On account of this weakness also, rural is not given the status of science. While discussing the nature of the rural sociology, it is to be kept in mind that there is vital difference between the subject matter of the natural science and rural sociology. As far as the exactness and the use of laboratory is concerned rural sociology is every day heading towards that and as far as the use of scientific method is concerned, rural sociology is even a science today.  Lec 2. Importance of rural sociology in extension education Extension education (Agricultural Extension) in the field of agriculture is concerned with agricultural education aimed at assisting people to bring about continuous improvement in their physical and social well being through individual and cooperative efforts. It makes available to the villagers, scientific information and also guidance in the application of such information in solving their problems. Villagers are educated to change their attitudes so as to raise their standard of living. Meaning of Extension Education: The word Extension is derived from the Latin roots ‘Ex’ meaning ‘out’ and ‘tensio’ meaning ‘stretching’. Thus the term extension education means the type of education, which is stretched out into the villages and fields beyond the limits of schools and colleges to which formal type of education is normally confined. In other words the word ‘extension’ used in this context signifies an OUT OF SCHOOL system of education. The three links in the chain of rural development are research, teaching and extension. EXTENSION (Latin word) “EX” – Out “TENSIO” – Stretching Definition: Extension education is the process of teaching rural people how to live better by learning ways that improve their farm, home and community institutions Importance of rural sociology Rural sociology is more important for modern India. Its importance can be levaluated in the following heads. i. India lives in villages and villages are the centres of Indian culture. ii. India is an agricultural country and the poverty of the country can be removed only when agriculture is improved. iii. Solution to rural problems can bring about the changes in rural reconstruction. iv. In the interest of decentralization of villages the community is to be studied in all aspects. Importance of rural sociology in extension education The basic purpose of agricultural extension is changing the behaviour farmers as desired. The inter relationship between rural sociology and extension education as given below will indicate the importance of rural sociology in extension education. INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RURAL SOCIOLOGY AND EXTENSION S. No. Rural Sociology Extension 1. It is a scientific study of the laws of It is informal (actually non-formal) thestructure and development of rural education for the rural people with a view to society develop rural society on desirable lines 2 It studies the attitudes and behavior of It seeks to modify or change for the better, rural people the attitudes and behavior of village people 3 It studies the needs and interests of rural It helps rural people to discover their needs society and problems and builds educational programs based on these needs and wants 4 It analyses rural social relationships, or It fosters (develops) and utilizes village group organizations and leadership in organizations and leadership and favorable rural areas, the social processes like social processes, to achieve its objectives of cooperation, association, competition etc, rural development among village people 5 It studies social situations and assembles It makes use of such social data as a basis social facts or rural society for building up its extension programs for rural areas 6 It investigates the social, cultural, It also studies these problems with reference political, and religious problems of rural to their impact on extension work in society villages From the above interrelationship between the rural sociology and agricultural extension, one could understand that rural sociology will help the extension agent to identify problems of farmers and develop an extension programme to help in solving the problems of farmers. Thus it can be concluded that both sciences are closely related and benefited with each other by sharing the knowledge of each other.  Lec 3 - Society – rural and urban, characteristics, differences and relationship, important characteristics of Indian rural society Definition of Society: Society is defined as a group of people in more or less permanent association who are organized for their collective activities and who feel that they belong together. Society is the complex of organized associations and institutions within the community – G.D.M. Cole A society is a collection of individuals united by certain relations and modes of behaviour which mark them off from others who do not enter into these relations or who differ from them in behaviour. – Ginsberg Elements of a society:  There should be social relationship  There should be likeness  Inter-dependence must be present  Co-operations must be present Characteristics of Indian Rural Society: 1. Agriculture is main economic activity of rural people. It is based predominantly on Agriculture. Agriculture is the main source of livelihood. The land is distributed between certain families. The distribution of land is between a big land owner and rest of the community, possession of which (land) has prestige value 2. Caste is dominant institution of village. It is peculiar type of grouping found in rural India. The village is governed to a very great extent by traditional caste occupations, carpenters, cobblers, smiths, washer men, agricultural laborers etc all belonging to separate castes, caste relations are important characteristics of rural life 3. The religious and caste composition of village largely determines its character. Different castes exist in village due to social distance. The habitation of each caste is separated from others. The habitation area has usually a distinct name e.g. Harijanawada 4. Each village is independent. All villages have their own organizations, authority and sanctions. Every village has Panchayat which is village self government 5. Village settlements are governed by certain traditions. The layout of the village, construction of houses, the dress etc is allowed according to the prescribed patterns of the culture of the area. In different areas a certain degree of diversity (differences between villages in the above aspects of the village life) in village organizations is peculiar 6. The rural society is self-sufficient. The unit of production in rural society is the family, which tries to produce much of its required goods. Economic production is the basic activity of rural aggregates (rural groups) 7. As a territorial, social, economic and religious unit, the village is a separate and distinct entity 8. It is common to find out a sense of attachment towards own settlement site. In rural society people do not have widely diversified tasks in different parts of the community 9. Village is characterized by isolation 10. The chief characteristic of rural life is homogeneity, there are not many differences among people pertaining to income, status etc. 11. The other characteristics are less density of population, less social mobility, less education, simplicity, traditionalism, fatalism, believing superstitions etc Differences between rural and urban communities Rural people are different from those living in urban areas. These differences are mainly due to the environment and its consequent impact on the lives of the people. S. Parameters or Rural Urban No Criteria 1. Occupation Totality of cultivators Totality of people engaged principally and their families in manufacturing, trade, commerce, profession and non-agricultural occupation. 2 Environment Direct relationship with Predominance of man-made nature environment. Greater isolation from nature. 3. Size of community Rurality and size of Urbanity and size of community is community are not positively correlated. correlated 4. Heterogeneity and More Homogeneity More Heterogeneity Homogeneity of population. (Similarity in socio- psychological and other characteristics Of population like behaviour belief,  language etc.) 5. Culture 1. Quite conservative Free from conservation and tradition and tradition bound 2. Guided by Free from superstitions and customs. superstitions and age old They are influenced by the scientific customs. They donot inventions which bring about changes accept importance of in every day life. scientific functions. 6. Social stratification 1. Has the traditional The society is divided into different (it determines the system of stratifications. strata on the basis of economic, social, status and roleof political, educational and other factors. individuals, or 2. Status is determined Status is not determined by birth. But differentiation or by birth on the economic, social, political, certain persons as educational and other consideration. superior to others) 3. Stratification is more It changes with the changes in values. or less static. It does not (e.g) A person who is rich now may change. become poor tomorrow. So the status shall change. 4. Difference between More the high and low is less. 7 Social mobility 1. Lack social mobility. Have a lot of social mobility People do not change their place, occupation, religion, political view etc. 2. Wards generally Occupation of wards is not necessary carries the occupation of that of the parents. parents and the social status also thus remains  more or less same. 3. Occupatio is Occupation differs according to skill determined by tradition & customs 8. Systems of 1. Less contact per man Numerous contacts interaction 2. Narrow area of Wide area of contact interaction 3. More of primary Predominance of secondary contacts contacts 4. Predominance of Predominance of impersonal, casual personal and relatively and short lived relations durable relations 5. Comparatively simple Greater complexity, superficiality and and sincere relations. standardized formality of relations. 6. Man is interacted as a Man is interacted as a "number" and human person address. 9. Social control 1. Informal because of More formal because of more laws size of community 2. It is the primary Primary institutions havesocial institutions like family & control. There are secondary neighbourhood that institutions like economic and other control life and the institutions that control social life. society. 10 Social change The process of social Social change is fast because there is a change takes place at a good deal of competition very slow rate because of little competition 11. Social tolerance 1. More tolerance Less tolerance because  And family because domination a. People do not face the People often face new situation new situation b. There is cultural Cultural variety seen uniformity c. Lack of variety Full of varieties (Neither different castes nor religions) 2. Family is the most 2. Apart from family other institution dominant institution like economy dominates 12. Status of women 1. Inferior to men On par with men 2. Role confined to Free to take part in out-door activities house 3. Live with serious On par with men enjoy a good deal of restrictions. They do not freedom enjoy full freedom 13. Neighbourhood 1. Have important place Not important environment 2. Rural life is based on People have fairly convenient life. co-operation and mutual People belong to different goodwill. That is why communities, castes and places and so neighbourhood is no institutions like neighbourhood is important. built. 3. Neighbourhood Belong to different economic status generally consists of and castes so no co-operation is seen. same caste and economic status. That is why a good deal of co- operation and fellow feeling is seen. 14. Leaders Based on personal More impersonal leaders characters 15. Solidarity Stronger, informal Less predominant 16. Income Less More 17. Sense of More Less belongingness  Lec 4 - Social Groups – definitions, classification, role of social groups in extension Social structure is composed of groups. Organizations, institutions, community etc, are the forms of human associations. Society functions through different forms of human beings to fulfill needs and purposes. Man functions in society through different forms of groups. Man is born is a social group and his first association is with his mother. He associates with groups in some way or other. Individual nowhere lives in isolation. This tendency to unite in groups is one of the important characteristics of human beings. Social groups are the units out of which society is constructed. Study of group is of primary important in the study of society and also important as a part of the total structure of society. Group is a medium through which we learn culture. The process of socialization takes place in groups Definitions of Group: According to Chitambar a social group is a unit of two or more people in reciprocal (to and from) interaction and in communication with each other. Maclever defined social group as a collection of human beings who enter into distinctive social relationships with one another According to Sharif and Sharif, a social group is a collection of two or more individuals in which there are psychological interactions and reciprocal roles based upon durable contacts, shared norms, interests, distinctive pattern of collective behavior and structural organization of leadership and followership Terms related to group Category: means collection of items that have atleast one common characteristic that distinguishes from other items which have other characteristics in common (eg.) individuals between 15 and 20 years of age, for instance, are referred to as an age group. Aggregation: is a collection of individuals in physical proximity of one another. (eg.) cinema audience, spectators of a football game. There may be some interaction between the individuals in an aggregation but it is generally of a temporary nature and lacks definite pattern of organisation. Interaction will be normally lacking. Potential group: is a group made up of number of people having some characteristics common but does not possess any recognizable structure. A potential group may become a real group, if it becomes organised and comes to have union or organisation. Students form a potential group as long as they have no union but once they become organised, they form a social group. Social group: is a collection of two or more individuals in which there are psychological interactions and reciprocal roles based upon durable contacts, shared norms and interests, distinctive patterns of collective behaviour and structural organisation of leadership and fol1owership. Characteristics of Social Group  Relationship: Members of group are inter-related to each other. Reciprocal relations form an essential feature of a group.  Sense of Unity: The members of the group are united by a sense of unity and a feeling of a sympathy.  We-feeling: The members of a group help each other and defend their interests collectively.  Common interest: The interests and ideas of the group are common. It is for the realisation of common interests that they meet together.  Similar Behaviour: The members of a group behave in a similar way for the pursuit of common interest.  Group Norms: Every group has its own rules or norms which the members are supposed to follow. Types or classification of Social Groups: Types Based on 1. Primary and secondary groups The type of relationship 2. In and out groups Personal feelings 3. Formal and informal groups Mode of organisation and functioning 4. Voluntary and involuntary group Structure and type of membership 5. Horizontal and vertical group Social class 6. Small group and large group Size 7. Reference group 8. Temporary and permanent Duration 9. Homogenous and heterogeneous Similarity Group 10. Statutory and non-statutory 11. Cohesive and in cohesive Bondage 12. Aggressive and passive Mode of action 13. Democratic and autocratic Liberty Based on the type of relationship groups are dived in to primary and secondary groups: the details are as follows as given by Rogers 1960: Primary groups are relationship directed whereas secondary groups are goal oriented Primary Group Secondary Group Small in size, often less than 20 to 30 Large in size Persons Personal and intimate relationships among Impersonal and aloof(distant) relationships members are there among members Face to face association is there between Less face to face contact the members Permanency is there and members are Temporary in nature. Members spend together over a long period of time relatively little time together Members are well acquainted and have a Members are not well acquainted and strong sense of loyalty or ‘we’ feeling and anonymity prevails a strong amount of group pressure is Present Informality is most common i.e. group does Formality prevails i.e. group often has a not have any name, officers etc name, officers and a regular meeting place Group decisions are more traditional and Group decisions are more rational and the non rational emphasis is on efficiency E.g. family, friendship group, play group E.g. political groups, labour unions, trade Etc unions, employees associations etc Based on mode of organization and functioning groups are divided in to formal and informal groups: Formal Group Informal Group These are formally organized and have These are not formally organized and lack prescribed structure i.e. constitution by-laws prescribed structure Etc E.g. Labour union, village council, students E.g. family, friendship group, play group union etc Etc Both in formal and informal groups are found Cliques which are tightly-knit groups based on common interest with very strong primary group feeling. Based on structure and type of membership groups are divided in to voluntary, involuntary and delegate groups: Concept of these groups given by Dwight Sanderson Voluntary Group Involuntary Group A person becomes member of the group Persons become members of the group based on his choice not according to their choice i.e. by birth, by residence, by location etc E.g. friendship group, play group etc E.g. family, neighbourhood, community etc. Delegate group: The members of this group are representative and chosen by groups. E.g. Gram Panchayat, U.N.O., etc. Based on social class groups are divided in the horizontal and vertical groups: P. A. Sorokin has put forth this classification Horizontal Group Vertical Group The members of this group are alike or similar The groups that are composed of in status or position in the class system of the members from different social strata (social Society status) and whose membership cuts vertically across the horizontal groupings in the society  E.g. caste E.g. race, nation etc Based on personal feelings the groups have been divided in and out groups. William Graham Sumner gave the concept of In and out group In Group Out Group Persons in this group feel that they belong to Persons in this group do not feel that they that group based on their attitudes of the belong to that group based on their members towards their own social groups Attitudes E.g. my family, my class, my church etc. E.g. corporate groups, etc. Based on the size of the groups the groups are divided in to small and large groups: Small Group Large Group The number of members is less than 30 The number of members is more E.g. family, play group etc. E.g. political group, labour union etc. Locality Group: This classification considers locality as one bond for holding groups together or it is based on the territory or locality occupied by the members. E.g. neighbourhoods, communities or villages towns etc Reference Group: In this group the individual feels identified with the group but he may or may not be the member of the group, the group influences individual. He shares the objectives of this group, which he accepts. The reference group provides the standards that guide behavior even when the standards are contrary to earlier membership groups. To understand the behavior of human beings we must know their reference groups. A reference group may be any group for E.g. Primary group, horizontal group etc. Reference group like friendship group may influence a farmer to accept or reject the adoption of an improved farming practice. Reference group is the group which the individual refers for advises on different aspects. An individual may have different reference groups for different purposes. In rural society the individual belongs to a comparatively small number of groups (largely primary) and his behavior is largely determined by them Genetic and Congregate group. F. H. Giddings classifies group into  Genetic and  Congregate Genetic group is the family in which a man is born involuntarily. The congregate group is the voluntary group to which he joins voluntarily. Role of social groups in extension education Social groups play important role in accepting innovative ideas in agriculture. In any society people with like minded thought action or purpose are more prone to be grouped to gather. They share common ideas and influence each other in decision making. Role of social groups in extension education are as follows  Contact with more farmers.  Groups help targeting  Improves the learning and spread of knowledge among farmers.  Enables farmers to actively participate in programmes.  Improves the flow of information about farmers problems.  Provides a forum for farmers to take joint decisions / actions.  Better access to resources.  Lec 5 - Culture – concept, cultural traits, characteristics, functions Culture Culture has been defined in number of ways. Some of these definitions are given below  To Sorokin, culture stands for the moral, spiritual and intellectual attainments of man.  David Bidney defines the culture as the self cultivation of the natural geographical environment. He says that culture is a product of agrofacts (products of cultivation), artifacts (products of industry), sociofacts (social organisation), and manifacts (language, religion, art, etc.)  According to Mac Iver culture is the expression of our nature in our modes of living and our thinking, intercourse in our literature, in religion, in recreation and enjoyment. In Sociology, the word culture is used to denote acquired behaviours, which are shared by and transmitted among the members of the society. The essential point in culture is that it is acquired by man as a member of society and persists though tradition. Characteristics of Culture i) Culture is an acquired quality Culture is not innate, traits learned through socialisation habits and thoughts arc called as culture. Culture is learned. ii) Culture is social and not individual heritage of man It is inclusive of the expectations of the members of the groups. It is a social product. iii) Culture is idealistic Culture embodies the ideas and norms of the group. It is a sum-total of the ideal patterns and norms of behaviour of a group. iv) Culture is the total social heritage Culture is linked with past. The past endures because it lives in culture. It is passed from one generation to another through tradition and customs. v) Culture fulfils some needs Culture fulfils those ethical and social needs of the groups which are ends in themselves. vi) Culture is an integrated system Culture possesses order and system. Its various parts are integrated with each other and any new element which is introduced is also integrated. vii) Language is the chief vehicle of culture Man lives not only in the present but also in the past and future. He is enabled to do because he possesses language which transmits to him what was learnt in the past and enables him to transmit the accumulated wisdom. Types of Culture 1. Material Culture: Material culture refers to the tangible aspects of culture, those things that can be seen or touched; e.g. temples, bridges, furniture etc. 2. Non-Material Culture: Non material culture consists of the abstract aspects of culture, which cannot be directly seen or touched; e.g. values, folkways, ways of thinking and feeling etc. Cultural concepts Customs: The sociologists have used various terms in order to classify various human acts of behavior. If these various types of human behavior are organized, they are called customs. Maclever defined customs as socially accorded (agreed) or accredited (given) ways of acting Customs are the accepted ways in which people do things together. Customs are socially prescribed forms of behavior transmitted by tradition and enforced by social disapproval of itsviolation (not doing). Customs may also be defined as a habitual form of meeting people. Training the young, supporting the aged etc are some of the customs of society. Our acting, our dressing, our worship are controlled to a great extent by customs. We agree most of the customs of the group to which we belong. Custom is usage (habit) it’s essential feature is that it is a generally observed code of conduct. Its’ sanction (punishment) is fear of public opinion. Human behavior is not individualized. It has some definite forms. It occurs in regular fashion. Customs are thought of as being well-established and difficult to change. Customs are generally a group action. Unconsciously we conform to the customs of our own society. Folkway if transmitted by tradition and followed generation after generation may become custom The classification of customs and their origin are as follows: Folkways: Folkways are expected forms of behavior but are not rigidly enforced Folkways are the customary ways of behaving in society, in which society exerts some force for conformity Folkways are recognized ways of behavior in a society The Folkways are socially acceptable ways of behavior. The customary norms of society that do not imply moral sanction (punishment). Folkways are otherwise called as Usages sometimes  The folkways are the right ways to do things because they are the expected ways. They do not have more sanctions associated with them. People who do not conform may be subject to criticism but would not be penalized Examples of folkways are: Good manners Entering home only after removal of shoes Lady touching the feet of her mother-in-law Rajput wearing a turban Greeting others with folded hands Thus folkways are accepted as appropriate but not insisted upon. Society cannot exercise pressure upon people to conform to regular pattern of behavior. Folkways help individuals in a group to order social life in a smooth and harmonious way. People who have similar needs began to satisfy these needs in a similar way in the same environment such actions give rise to folkways. Folkways usually arise without prior intention in the process of living. They are the results of frequent repetition of petty(little) actions often, by large number of people acting in the same way when faced with some needs. They arise from experience. Non-observance of folkways is not a vital matter, social sanction is relatively mild, but the disapproval is shown by lifted eyebrow expression of moderate surprise or smile Mores: Mores are the plural of Latin word ‘More’. The mores are the customs or patterns of behavior, which are regarded by members of social system as vital and essential to the welfare of the group. They show what is right for the welfare of group. Mores may be defined as those customs, which are held to be essential to ethical or moral values of people. Mores are the socially acceptable ways of behavior that do involve moral standards (regulations) and violation of more may result in severe social action or sanction, such as ostracism (exclusion of individual or family from the village or society). Religion provides foundation for mores of the society Examples of Mores: Inter-dining of high-caste Hindus with out-caste Hindus Honesty is one of the recognized mores of the society Saluting the National Flag Standing during the playing of National Anthem Monogamy (having one wife or husband) Women and children first in the event of crises The term more is used for those things that are ought to be done. It is used for positive actions. Mores are insisted upon individuals. Society exerts pressure to conform the regular pattern and it not followed individual gets penalty from society. Mores are rigidly enforced. Taboos: Generally the term ‘more’ is used for the positive action or things that ought to be done but the term ‘taboo’ is used for the negative action and for the things that one ought not to do. Taboo means forbid. It refers to the prohibitions of the types of behavior because of some magical, supernatural (God) or religious sanction Examples of taboo: Total abstinence (self denial) of eating beef in a Hindu village (eating beef in Hindu religion) and eating pork in Muslim religion Rituals: Ritual is prescribed form of behavior for certain occasions and certain actions are designated in prescribed manner. Ritual may be defined as a pattern of behavior or ceremony, which has become the customary way of dealing with certain situations. Generally it is discussed as an aspect of religion. Religion is found in all established form of activities. It may include prayers. Militaryorganization and other formally organized groups have adhered to a prescribed form of behavior known as ritualism Examples of rituals: Playing with crackers on ‘Diwali’ Celebration of Independence Day Celebration of Republic day Conventions: These are customs regulating more significant social behavior. Parents generally do not care to leave such learning to chance. Parents instruct their children the conventions though often they (parents) cannot explain why the child must confirm Examples of Conventions: Being polite to others Wearing clothes in public Dating or courtship (found in western countries) and engagement practices Using knife, spoon or fork for eating etc. Differences between mores and taboos: Mores Taboos Mores refer to positive action Taboos refer to negative action Mores are the customs regarded by the They are the customs which are forbidden  members of the society as vital or essential Things ought to be done Things ought not to be done E.g. Monogamy, honesty etc. E.g. eating of beef in Hindu religion etc. Differences between mores and folkways: Mores Folkways These are socially acceptable ways of These are the customary ways of behavior that involve moral standards behaving in society These are rigidly enforced and if not followed Persons who do not conform may be by a person the individual gets severe penalty subjected to criticism or be considered form the society ‘strange’ but would not necessarily Penalized Patterns of behavior which are considered Expected form of behavior but not rigidly essential by the society Enforced If violated the group or society may be If violated will not have severe effect on disturbed or divided Society E.g. Monogamy, honesty etc. E.g. Good manners, greeting others etc. Cultural traits A Cultural trait is the smallest unit of culture, and has been defined more specifically as a ‘reportedly irreducible unit of learned behaviour pattern or material product thereof’. - Hoebel, 1949. Cultural complex A cultural complex is a group of cluster of related traits. It is not always easy to distinguish from a cultural trait, and distinction often depends largely on the analytical ability of an observer. Thread ceremony in a Hindu Brahmin home is one of the example of clustering of a large number of related cultural traits to form a religious cultural complex. Culture pattern A culture pattern is a group of culture complexes, formed in the same way to form a culture complex. The term is also used in a more limited way so that one may refer to the cultural pattern of the rural Hindu society, in the broad sense and also the major segments of this culture in the narrower sense. Functions of culture Culture is important for individual and group. So one has to consider the functions of culture under two heads. a) for individual and b) for groups. Importance to the individual  Culture makes man a human being, regulates his conduct and prepares him for group life. It provides him a complete design of living. It teaches him what type of food he should take and in what manner; how he should behave with and influence the people and how he should co-operate or compete with others. In short, the qualities required to live in a social life are acquired by man from his culture.  Culture provides solutions for complicated situations. Culture provides man with a set of behaviour even for complicated situations. Culture thoroughly influences him so that he does not require any external force to keep himself in conformity with social requirements. His actions become automatic (e.g.) forming a queue where there is a rush.  Culture provides traditional integrations to certain situation (e.g.) if a cat crosses his way he postpones the journey. These traditional interpretations differ from culture to culture. For the group i) Culture keeps social relationships intact Culture is important not only for man but also for the group. Had there been no culture there would have been no group life. By regulating the behaviour of people and satisfying their primary drives pertaining to hunger, shelter, and sex it has been able to maintain group life. Infact life would have been poor, nasty, brutish and short if there had been no cultural regulations. It is culture which keeps all social relations intact. ii) Culture broadens the vision of the individual Culture has given a new vision to the individual by providing him a set of rules for the cooperation of the individuals. It provides him the concepts of family, state, nation and class and makes possible the coordination and division of labour. iii) Culture creates new needs Culture creates new needs and new drives, for example, thirst for knowledge and arranges for their satisfaction. It satisfies the aesthetic, moral and religious interests of the members of the group. In this Way group owe much to culture.  Lec 6 -Ethnocentrism, Acculturation, Cultural lag, Cultural diffusion, Marginal man, Ethos. Ethnocentrism: Ethnocentrism refers to the preferential feeling we have for the way we do things in our culture. We presume that ours is the best of all cultures and the way we do things is the right way to dothem. This is common characteristic we find among the people of all cultures. This influences the extension activities some times, which we have to understand and safeguard. Acculturation Acculturation is the process of social, psychological, and cultural change that stems from blending between cultures. The effects of acculturation can be seen at multiple levels in both the original (native) and newly adopted (host) cultures. Historically speaking, acculturation is a direct change of one's culture through dominance over another's culture through either military or political conquest. At this group level, acculturation often results in changes to culture, customs, religious practices, diet, healthcare, and other social institutions. Some of the most noticeable group level effects of acculturation often include changes in food, clothing, and language. At the individual level, the process of acculturation refers to the socialization process by which foreign-born individuals adopt the values, customs, norms, attitudes, and behaviors of the dominant host culture. This process has been linked to changes in daily behavior, as well as numerous changes in psychological and physical well-being. As enculturation is used to describe the process of first- culture learning, acculturation can be thought of as second-culture learning. Cultural Diffusion Cultural diffusion is the processes by which the cultural traits invented or discovered in one society are spread directly or indirectly to other societies. Exact origin of a specific cultural trait is difficult to trace, however, the diffusion of a trait can fairly be traced. In history certain societies have served as centres from which cultural traits have spread to other societies. Egypt was for many centuries a cultural centre. Subsequently Rome was a great cultural center from where Roman law spread in most countries of Europe. In Asia the Chinese Kingdom was considered from early time as the dominant culture center. Around fourteen century Western Europe became the dominant culture center. Now, the United States is exporting its culture to other countries. Following are the influential factors to the process of diffusion. a) Relation and communication b) Need and desire for new traits c) Competition with old traits d) The respect and recognition of those who bring new traits.  Cultural diffusion may be incidental or by direction. Wherever a person migrates from one culture area to another he carried culture patterns with him. Cultural diffusion by direction is normally done either by sending missionaries or by colonization. Cultural lag Cultural lag means that some parts of people's culture do not change as do other traits. It means that one or more phases of culture have moves ahead and that all other phases are lagging behind. Marginal man Difference in culture produces a marginal man. A person who is living in two cultures is likely to occupy not the center of either but by the margins of both. He is the man who belongs to two or more cultures but is not fully accepted in any. A migrant, who has moved into a decidedly different culture area from the one in which he grew to manhood, is likely to be marginal man. Ethos The term “ethos” is used to signify those traits that are characteristic of or peculiar to a particular culture which may be used to differentiate one culture from another. For instance some important components of the ethos of the Indian culture are Handi-crafts and cottage industries, Emphasis on religion and tradition, including casteism, low standard of living, slow tempo of life, hospitality, love of fine arts including sculpture, painting and engraving.  Lec 7 - Structure of Rural Society – patterns of rural settlement WHAT IS THE STRUCTURE OF RURAL SOCIETY? There are many models or forms according to which rural society has been analyzed and described, and many different definitions. Rural society has a form - a structure - like a building. This structure consists of a physical, tangible form that can be seen and touched. This is called the physical structure. There is also an intangible form that cannot be seen and touched, and this is called the social structure. Together the physical and social structures form the structure of rural society within which the people live. These structures govern their behaviour. thinking, attitudes, values, motivations and actions. Both physical and social structures are interwoven and need to be studied carefully to give clear comprehension and understanding of rural people and the society within which they live. With this background of understanding, implementing an effective strategy for working with the people in promoting change for their development, can be achieved. PATTERNS OF RURAL SETTLEMENT Patterns of settlement of rural people are of two basic and fundamental types—the grouped or clustered dwelling forms and the dispersed forms. Between the two points are varied combinations of patterns of settlement found in general all over the world. In considering these various patterns of settlements it is essential to bear in mind the following: A. The two fundamental types of rural settlements are to be found widely diffused over the inhabited portions of the world. This has been so from antiquity and continues to the present day B. The theory, widely accepted by some rural sociologists, that rural habitat evolved through transition from village type to isolated farm type, is still open to challenge and question. Evidence from various countries does not appear to fully substantiate such theory of transition and, in fact., seems to indicate that neither village nor isolated farm type can be conclusively considered original or following the other, subsequent in time. C. The factors responsible for the type of rural habitat and pattern of settlement have been numerous and the type of habitat has been as a result of multiple factors and not due to the influence of a single factor. The following patterns of settlement in different parts of the world and they are as follows 1. Isolated farmsteads: Here the individual farmer lives in the midst of the farm, surrounded by his her farm land. Neighbours may be some distance away depending on the size of their respective or Located adjacent to the individual farmer's dwelling place, are the livestock, barn, farm equipment, seed, fertiliser storage, harvested produce and other such commodities. This pattern is found in some parts of South India - in the State of Kerala and the Malabar Coast. 2. Village: This patten of settlement consists of dwellings of rural people concentrated together with their farm land outlying their clustered dwellings or village. The number of dwellings will vary and will indicate the size of the village. Examples of the village pattern of settlement are to be found in most of the countries of the East, where such a pattern predominates. In India this pattern exists almost all over the country. 3. Line villages: Here, houses are located along a road, a waterway or artery of transportation, each with adjoining strips of farm land oblong in shape extending away from the road.  Residences are thus close and easily accessible to one another and at the same time arc located on their respective farms. This pattern of settlement may be seen along canals in Thailand, in certain parts of Canada along the St. Lawrence River, in French Canadian settlements in Maine and Louisiana in the U.S.A. and is characteristic of the French land tenure pattern. Many villages in France and Germany are also of this type. 4. Round village or circular patterns: In a round village houses are arranged in a circle enclosing a central area with the house and yard at the apex of a triangular plot. In this way, houses arc closer together without creating a corresponding greater length in the tract of farm land. Such a pattern has been followed by some villages in Israel where irrigated land is very limited. 5. Cross-roads and market centre settlements: Common in various parts of the world and based on economic factors of location for supply and distribution of goods, these settlements provide needed products and commodities, such as prepared foodstuffs, refreshments, services such as petrol stations, repair shops, barber shops, etc. Market centre settlements, therefore, arc predominantly inhabited by merchants who handle agriculture products, bankers, shopkeepers and others. Farmers usually do not reside in such centres unless their farm land is adjacent. Normally, these centres consist of shops that line the main road. 6. Hamlets: These are small villages located away from other villages or on the fringes of larger villages. Usually, they do not possess adequate supplies and service facilities that may be more available in the larger village. 7. Other: Other types of settlements exist to serve specific functions. For example, in India at points of religious pilgrimage or interest, a temple, a mosque or a church may be built andalong with it dwelling places for those who visit and worship. Similarly, there may be historic and other places of tourist interest around which settlements have formed. Factors significantly influencing the pattern of settlement in rural areas: (A) Influence of Natural Conditions: Under natural conditions three sub-factors have influence on the type of rural habitat. The first is relief configurations or the topography of land. Le% el flat land is more conducive to the village type of settlement rather than dispersed. On the other hand, mountainous areas make isolated dispersed patterns of settlement easier, for land in such areas is broken into irregular often terraced strips, and flat land suitable for village type dwelling is scarce. Dispersion of dwelling increases as mountains or hilly topography of land increases. The second is soil constitution, which often imposes very difficult conditions on the pattern of settlement – depending on whether the soil is soft and marshy or dry and solid. The third sub-factor which exerts influence on the type of rural habitat is water resources. Habitation centres around sources of water and the amount of water available limits the size of settlement to that able to be supported by water resources. (B) Influence of Social Conditions: While conclusive evidence is not available it is probable that primitive man, following his original tendencies, first lived together with his nuclear family and then expanded the group by living together with the extended family, clan and kinship groups. Thus, the pattern of living in clustered dwellings emerged, and, afterward, was followed because of ethic tradition. In addition, living in clustered villages provides defence and mutual protection. Finally, in an agrarian regime under the feudal or landlord system, the landlord located his tenants and serfs in such pattern as was convenient to him. In some cases, village settlements were advantageous for control and in others it was better for dwellings to be dispersed. (C) Influence of Agricultural Economy: The various stages of agricultural development have exerted influence on the pattern of rural settlement. In the nomadic stage of cultivation 'slash and burn' agriculture was followed with movement from one area to another. Dwellings of necessity were light and impermanent. In the stage of periodic redistribution of land, dwellings were accordingly impermanent in pattern and structure, for the farmer easily could be dispossessed of his land and home and moved elsewhere. The stage of fixed possession brought more permanence both in pattern and type of rural habitat; there was greater stability in location of residence in both village or isolated dispersed type of settlement. Now, in the stage of specialised culture, the trend is away from village type of rural habitat to the isolated dispersed type. Lec 8 - Social institutions, Social organizations and ecological entities - Region, Community and Neighbourhood Social institutions are created by man from social relationships in society to meet basic needs such as stability, law and order and clearly defined roles of authority and decision making. These are organised systems of behaviour to meet basic needs of society. Horton (1964) defined institution as an organised system of social relationships which embodies certain common values and procedures and meets certain basic needs of society. According to Landis, “social institutions are formal cultural structures devised to meet basic social needs.” Major Institutions in Rural Society Generally, five basic institutions are recognised in rural society: the family, religion, the economic, government and education. The family It is the most multifunctional of all institutions in society, and is a system of organised relationships involving workable and dependable ways of meeting basic social needs. Family commonly fulfils the following tasks in society:  Sex regulation  Reproduction and perpetuation of the family and human race,  Socialisation’  Provision of economic maintenance and livelihood in many cultures  Provision of love, affection and security to individuals and  Provision of class status to the individual of the family into he has been born Within the basic institution of the family are secondary institutions such as engagement, marriage, courtship and relationships with the family into which marriage has taken place. Classification of family Family is the most universal group. Family is classified based on structure (patriarchal or matriarchal) and residence. 1. Patriarchal family It is the family where male is the head of family inclusive of powers. He is the owner and administrator of the family property and right. To him all persons living in the family are subordinated. 2. Matriarchal family The authority vests in the woman head of the family. The male is subordinated to her. She is the owner of property and rules over family. This type of family is said to prevail among the primitive people, who led a wandering or hunting life. 3. Based on residence the family is classified as Matrilocal family: In this type of family husband goes to live in the house of his wife. Patrilocal family: Wife goes and lives in the house of her husband. 4. Based on the marriage the family is classified as: i. Monogamous family: In which man marries one woman only at one time. ii. Polygamous family: In this kind of family one man marries many women at one time. iii. Polyandrous family: In. this kind of family one man marries many women and lives with all of them or each of them alternatively. 5. The family is also classified based on ancestry as follows: ii. Matrilineal family: Here woman is believed to be the ancestor of the family. iii. Patrilineal family: Here the ancestry continues through the father. Religion Religion provides a foundation for mores in society. The function of religion is to provide means where man can face the crisis with strength and fortitude. Most religions of the world have the following elements: I. A set of beliefs regarding the ultimate power in the universe II. A set of beliefs regarding the ideal and proper pattern of behaviour III. A set of ceremonial ways of expressing these beliefs Government It is also referred as the political institution. It administers the regulatory functions of law and order and maintains security in society. Within this major institution are secondary institutions such as military systems, political forces, legal systems, and diplomatic relations with other countries. Economy and Maintenance Such institutions provide basic physical subsistence for society and meet basic needs for food, shelter, clothing and other necessities. Included are the economic institutions of production – agriculture, industry, and the distribution, exchange and consumption of commodities, goods and  services necessary for human survival. Secondary institutions included within the major economic institutions are credit and banking systems, advertising, cooperatives etc. Education Educational institutions are those institutions which seek to socialise individuals in society or introduce them in formal ways into their social and cultural world. Every new generation must be prepared and trained to play a role in society. This process referred as the process of socialisation, commences informally at home and then formally in the institution of education. Functions and the structural elements associated with major institutions in the society Function Institution Major roles Physical traits Symbolic traits Bearing and rearing children Family Father House Ring mother furnishings wedding child will Providing food, economic Employer Factory office Merit award clothing and employee store emblem shelter consumer trade- mark producer Enforcing laws, rules and Political Ruler Public building Flag standards Subject Public works Codes charter promoting cooperative religious Pastor Cathedral Cross attitudes, faith, hope, charity Member Temple Altar Bible education Teacher School Diploma Socializing persons into student College Degrees basic values and practices of Books Society Lec 9 - Social Stratification – concept, functions, types, differences between class and caste system If we look around us, we find that society is heterogeneous in nature. Here are the rich, there the poor; here are the industrialists, there are peasantry; here are the rulers, there the sweepers. Everywhere society is divided into classes, economic, social, political and religious. Social stratification means division of society into different classes. Murray, “Social stratification is the horizontal division of society into higher and lower social units.” Gisbert, “Social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups or categories linked with each other by the relationship of superiority and subordination.” Social stratification thus divides society into various sections. Some individuals are ranked higher  than others on the basis of opportunities and privileges which they enjoy. It may therefore be seen that inequality of status is the distinguishing feature of social stratification. Thus we may define social stratification as division of society into classes on the basis of status. Status is very important element in the concept of social stratification. It involves some special combination of social privileges. Therefore privileges determine the standard of living and the way of life of the members of each class. The upper class is thus accorded a high status. Maciver, “status is the social position that determines for is possessor, apart from his personal attributes or social service, a degree of respect, prestige and influences.” Functions of Stratification A means of accomplishing jobs in society: In society social stratification contributes as a essential mean to get some of its jobs bydistributing different amounts of prestige and privilege to various strata. An university is an example of stratification with clearly defined strata, each marked with visible symbols denoting status , specific roles and role expectations, norms and prescribed standards of behaviour and interrelationships – all clearly organised to do a job. The society gives rewards to serve as incentives to get the various jobs accomplished. These rewards are economic, aesthetic, materialistic and psychological. Regulation and control of individual and group relationships: Stratification regulates and control human relationships in society by defining the roles and roles expectations. Whatever an individual’s position, whether high or low, social stratification regulates his participation in certain areas of social life. Social stratification tends to regulate participation of groups and individuals in the total life of society, giving them access to certain areas and restricting them to others. Contribution to social integration and structure: Stratification in society has a strong integrative function, serving to co-ordinate and harmonise units within social structure because in stratified society members are dependent one another. Simplification: Stratification of society categorises people into different strata. Every status has its particular role. Thus role expectations simplify man’s world in respect to his relations with other people. Bases for stratification In the system of stratification differential position or status of members are found in all societies all over the world from the most primitive to the most modern. Members differ in the roles and status ascribed to them by society. There are two different sources from which stratification is society has developed either ethnic, or social. Ethnic stratification occurs in society in which two ethnic or racial groups exist and one dominates the other over a long period of time. Social basis for stratification in society involves the growth of a system of ranked strata within society. The social factors that give status to individuals of groups are criteria socially determined, based on the value system and social values of society. The presences of the factors which are considered of social worth contribute to one’s prestige and high status varies from society to society. In some societies , occupation, income and wealth, education are considered; in other societies, ownership of landed property, ancestry and family name may be most important; in still others education, caste, creed and powder or influence with authorities may rank high as social values. The universal criteria for determinants of status are wealth, ancestry, functional utility of the individual, religion, biological characteristics. Forms of social stratification All over the world there is existence of similarities and differences in various systems of stratification in all societies. The differences in societies are somewhere rigid and somewhere flexible. In some systems different strata are easily identifiable, while in others the boundaries are hard to locate. Considering the various societies that have existed and do exist in the world, certain recurrent forms of social stratification generally can be identified. Slavery: The term slave is used to denote “a man whom law and custom regard as the property of another”. In slavery every slave has his master to whom he is subjected. The master’s power over the slave is unlimited. Slaves are in lower condition and have no political rights. The basis of slavery is economic. Estates: The feudal estates of medieval period have been the basis of social stratification. The feudal estates were legally defined. They represented a broad division of labour having definite functions to perform. The feudal estates were also political groups. Caste: Caste system is peculiar to India. In the first place caste is connected with economic differentiation. It is more apparent when we consider the four traditional varnas where there is a clear specification of occupations. In India Caste is also occupational group. Social Class: A social class system is based on economic considerations. It represents the group of industrial societies. Thus the industrial society is divided into upper class, middle class and lower class. Difference between class and caste system Caste is a social category whose members are assigned a permanent status with in given social hierarchy and whose contacts are restricted accordingly. It is the most rigid and clearly graded type of social stratification and has been often referred to as the extreme form of closed class system. An individual is born into the caste of his parents can rise no further, with few exceptions he cannot fall to a lower caste, but if he violates taboos and other mores of his caste, he may be expelled from his caste group. Personal qualities or ability have no part whatever in determining the caste of an individual, with lineage being the only criterion. The following are the characteristics of rigid caste system.  Membership in the caste is hereditary and unchangeable for life.  Marriages must be made with in the caste line.  There is a caste name and each caste has its particular customs.  Contacts with other castes or sub castes in all aspect of life are strictly regulated and limited by mores.  The hierarchy of caste is well understood and strictly enforced according to its local variations. Class Social classes are defined as abstract categories of persons arranged in levels according to social status they possess. There are no firm lines separating one category from the other. Classes are loosely organized groupings, whose members behave towards each other as social equals. The classes may be based on power, prestige, wealth or a combination of these and other factors. 1. Defined classes are culturally defined groups recognized as such by society e.g. tribal and non-tribal classes 2. Economic classes are groups engaged in different economic activities or standing in different relationships to the means of production in a society e.g. business, service farmer and other classes. 3. Political classes are groups formed on the basis of political power e.g. Congress, BJP, and BSD. 4. Self identified classes are conceived in terms of the identification of their members e.g. Rotary Club, Lions club etc. Differences The fundamental points of difference between class and caste are the following: Open vs. Closed Class is more open than caste. A man can change his class and status by his enterprise and initiatives but in case of caste system it is impossible to change one’s caste status. Once a man is born in a caste he remains in it for his life-time and makes his children suffer the same status. A caste is thus closed class. The individual’s status is determined by the caste status of his parents, so that what an individual does has little bearing upon his status. On the other hand the membership of a class does not depend upon heredity basis; it rather depends on the worldly achievements of an individual. Thus class system is an open and flexible system while caste system is a closed and rigid system. Divine vs. Secular The caste system is believed to have been divinely obtained. In the Bhagavadagita the Creator is said to have apportioned the duties and functions of the four castes. An individual must do duty proper to his caste. Caste system in India would not have survived for so many centuries if the religious system has not made it sacred and inviolable. On the contrary, there is nothing sacred or of divine origin in the class stratification of society. Classes are secular in origin. They are not founded on religious dogmas. Endogamous The choice of mates in caste system is generally endogamous. Members have to marry within their own castes. A member marrying outside his caste is treated as outcaste. No such restrictions exist in class system. A wealthy man may marry a poor girl without being outcaste. An educated girl may marry an uneducated partner without being thrown out from the class of teachers. Class consciousness The feeling of class consciousness is necessary to constitute a class but there is no need for anysubjective consciousness in the members of caste. Prestige The relative prestige of the different castes is well established but in class system there is norigidly fixed order of prestige.