Urbanization (Ayesha Mam Compiled) PDF

1 What is Urbanization? The development literature offers several definitions for participation, notably—and representatively—the following:  Urbanization is defined as the population within urban areas increasing. This is closely related to industrialization, modernization and rationaliz...

1 What is Urbanization? The development literature offers several definitions for participation, notably—and representatively—the following:  Urbanization is defined as the population within urban areas increasing. This is closely related to industrialization, modernization and rationalization, a type of sociological process.  According to Kingsley Davis (1962) has explained urbanization as a process of switch from spread-out pattern of human settlements to one of concentration in urban centers. The Development of City  Urbanization is the concentration of humanity into cities.  Although there were great cities in the ancient world, like Athens and Rome in Europe, city life was very different from that experienced in previous ages.  As early sociologist like Simmel and Tonnies showed, the development of the modern city changed the way in which humans felt and thought about the world and the ways in which they interacted with one another. Cities in Traditional Societies  The worlds first cities appeared around 3500 BCE(before Common Era), in the river valleys of the Nile in Egypt, the Tigris and Euphrates in what is now Iraq, and the Indus in what is today Pakistan.  Babylon one of the largest ancient near Eastern cities, extended over an area of only 3.2 square miles and at its height, around 2000 BCE, probably numbered no more that 15000-20000 people.  Rome under emperor Augustus in the first century BCE was easily the largest pre-modern city outside China, with some 300000 inhabitant –the size of a small modern city today.  Most cities of the ancient world shared certain common features and the dwellings of the ruling class or elite tended to be concentrated near the center. Industrialization and urbanization  The most populous cities in the industrialized countries number almost 20 million inhabitants. A conurbation – a cluster of cities and towns forming a continuous network – may include even larger numbers of people. The peak of urban life today is represented by what is called megalopolis, the city of cities.  Britain was the first society to undergo industrialization, a process that began in the mid 18th century. In 1800, 20% of the British populations lived in towns or cities. By 1900, this proportion had risen to 74 percent.  The capital city, London was home to about 1.1 million people by 1800 ; by the beginning of 20th century, it had increased in size to a population of more than 7 million. London was then by far the largest city ever seen in the world.  Urbanization is now a global process, into which developing countries are increasingly being drawn. In 1950 only 30% of the world’s population were urban dwellers. By 2000, this had reached 47%, 2.9 billion people and by 2030, it is forecast to reach 60%,5 billion people.  2 The Development of Modern City  Only at the turn of the 20th century did statisticians and social observations begin to distinguish between the town and the city.  The expansion of cities came about because of population increase , plus the migration of outsides from farms, villages and small towns. This migration was often international, with people moving from peasant backgrounds directly into cities in other counties. The immigration of very large numbers of Europeans from poor farming backgrounds to the united states in most obvious example.  Cross –national immigration into cities was also widespread between countries in Europe. Example pull and push factors.  The development of modern cities had an enormous impact, not only on habits and modes of behavior, but on patterns of thought and feelings.  As cities mushroomed in size, many people were horrified to see that inequalities and urban poverty seemed to intensify correspondingly. Urban Trends in the Developed World Sub-urbanization:  In USA , the process of suburbanization reached its peak in the 1955s and 1960s.  The centers of cities during those decades had a 10 percent growth rate, while that of the suburban areas was 48 percent.  Most of the early movement to the suburbs involved white family. Moving to the suburbs was an attractive option for families who wished to put their children in all white schools. Even today American suburbs remain mostly white Urban Trends in the Developed World Inner–city decay  In the USA, the serve inner-city decay, which has marked all large cities over the past few decades, is a direct consequences of the growth of the suburbs.  The movement of high-income groups away from the city centers has meant a loss of their local tax revenues. Since those that remain, or replace them, include many who are living in poverty, there is little scope for replacing that lost income.  This situation is worsened by the fact that the building stock in city centers becomes more run down than in the suburbs, crime rates rise and there is higher unemployment.  One reasons for the decay in Britain’s inner cities is that financial crises. From the late 1970s onwards, central government put strong pressure on local authorities to limit their budgets and to cut local services, even in inner-city areas most subject to decay.  Inner –city decay in the UK is also related to changes in the global economy.  3 Riots and urban unrest  In an era of globalization, population movement and rapid change, large cities have become concentrated and intensified expressions of the social problems that afflict society as a whole.  The invisible fault-line within cities, generally created by unemployment and racial tension, undergo the equivalent of social earthquakes. Simmering tensions flare to the surface, sometimes violently in the form of riots, looting and widespread destruction.  Main cause UK riots is found a deep polarization between different ethnic communities in Britain’s urban areas.  To report suggested that greater community cohesion is needed, based upon knowledge of , contact between and respect for the various cultures that make up the UK. Urban renewal :  In many developed counties, a range of national schemes-involving, for example, grants for the rehabilitation of houses by their owners and tax incentives to attract business-have been try to revive the fortunes of the inner cities.  The UK conservative government’s ‘action for cities’ program of 1988, for examples, looked more to private investment and free market forces to generate improvement than to state intervention. However, the response from business was much weaker than anticipated. Gentrification and ‘urban recycling’  Urban recycling –the refurbishing or replacement of old buildings and new uses for previously developed land-has become common in large cities.  Occasionally this has been attempted as part of planning programs, but more often it is the result of gentrification- the renovation of building in dilapidated city neighbourhood for use by those in higher income groups, plus the provision of amenities like shops and restaurants to serve them.  The gentrification of inner-city areas has occurred in many cities in Britain, the USA and other development nations. Challenges of Urbanization in the developing world Economic implication  Informal economy & small scale trading activities  OECD estimate a billon new job will be needed by 2025 Environmental challenges  Congestion and over development, housing crises in city lead to serious environmental problem in many urban area. Example: Mexico, Dhaka Social effects  Existing social services cannot meet the demands for health care, family planning advice, education and training.  The unbalanced age distribution in developing counties adds to their economic and social difficulties.  4 Urbanism as a way of life  Urbanization is the concentration of humanity into cities.  Early sociologists in Europe and the United states focused their attention on the rise of cities and how urban life differed from rural life. Here briefly present their accounts of urbanism as a way of life. Ferdinand Tonnies: Gemeinschaft And Gesellschaft  In the late nineteenth century, the German sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies (1855-1937) developed two concepts that have become a lasing part of sociology’s terminology.  German word Gemeinschaft (meaning roughly ‘community’) to refer to a type of social organization by which people are closely tied by kinship and tradition. The Gemeinschaft of the rural village joins people in what amounts to a single primary group.  On the contrary, urbanization fosters Gesellschaft (a German word meaning roughly ‘association’, a type of social organization by which people come together only on the basis of individual self-interest. In the Gesellschaft way of life, individuals are motivated by their own needs rather than a drive to enhance the well-being of everyone. Emile: Durkheim: Mechanical and Organic Solidarity  The French sociologist Emil Durkheim agreed with much of Tonnies’s thinking about cities, but Durkheim countered, urbanites do not lack social bonds; they simply organize social life differently than the rural people.  Durkheim described traditional. Rural life as mechanical solidarity, social bonds based on common sentiments and shared moral values. with its emphasis on tradition, Durkheim’s concept of mechanical solidarity bears a striking similarity to Tonnies’s Gemeinschaft.  urbanization erodes mechanical solidarity, Durkheim explained, but it also generates a new type of bonding, which he called organic solidarity, social bonds based on specialization and interdependence.  This concept, which parallels Tonnies’s Gesellschaft, reveals an important difference between the two thinkers, while they agreed that the growth of industrial cities undermined tradition, Durkheim optimistically pointed to a new kind of solidarity. Where societies had been built on likeness, Durkheim now saw social life based on difference. Georg Simmel: The blasé urbanite  The German sociologist Georg Simmel (1858-1918) offered a microanalysis of cities, studying how urban life shapes individual experience.  According to Simmel, individual perceive the city as a crush of people, objects and events. To prevent being overwhelmed by all this stimulation, urbanities develop a blasé attitude, turning out much of what goes on around them.  Such detachment does not mean that city dwellers lack compassion for others; they simply keep their distance as their survival strategy so they can focus on their time and energy on those who really matter to them.  5 The Chicago school: Robert Park & Louis Wirth  Robert park, a leader of the first U.S. Sociology program at the university of Chicago, sought to add a stress- level perspective by getting out and studding real cities.  Park found that the city to be an organized mosaic distinctive ethic communities, commercial centers and industrial districts. Over the time, he observed, these ‘natural areas’ develop and change in relation to each other. To park, then the city was a living organism-a human kaleidoscope.  Another major figure in the Chicago school of urban sociology was Louis Wirth (1897-1952). He is the best known for blending the ideas of Tonnies, Durkheim, Simmel and Park into comprehensive theory of urban life.  Wirth began by defining the city as a setting with a large, dense and socially diverse population. These traits result in an impersonal, superficial and transitory way of life.  When city people notice others at all, they usually know them not in terms of who they are but what they do-as, for instance, the bus driver or grocery store clerk.  Specialized urban relationships can be pleasant enough for all concerned. But we should remember that self –interest rather than friendship is usually the main reason for the interaction.  Finally , limited social involvement coupled with great social diversity makes city dwellers more tolerant and other hand rural communities enforce their narrow tradition. Urban ecology Sociologist (Chicago school) also developed urban ecology, the study of the link between the physical and social dimensions of cities. They asked, first, why cities are located where they are. Early urbanites built many cities on mountain or areas surrounded by water.  Urban ecologists also study the physical design of cities. In 1925, Ernest W. Burgess, described land use in Chicago in terms of concentric Zones. Burgess observed, are business districts bordered by a ring of factories, followed by residential rings with housing that becomes more expensive the farther it is from the noise and pollution of the city’s center.  Homer Hoyt (1939) refined Burgess’s observations, nothing that distinctive districts sometimes form wedge shaped sectors. For example, one fashionable area may be develop next to another along a train or trolley line.  Chauncy Harris and Edward added that they lose their single –center form in favor of a multi-centered model. Examples : the city becomes a mosaic of distinct district.  Social areas analysis investigates what types people in particular neighborhoods have in common. Three factors seem to explain most of the variation: family patterns. Social class , race and ethnicity. Example: the rich seek high prestige neighborhoods and school.  Finally , Brian berry and Philip Rees (1969) explain that distinct family types tend to settle in the concentric zones. Specially, households with few children tend to cluster towards the city center, while those with more children live farther away.  6 Urban Political Economy  In the late 1960s, Many large U.S. cities were rocked by rioting. In the wake of such rioting, some analysts turned away from the ecological approach to a social conflict understanding of city life.  The ecological approach sees the city as a natural organism, with particular districts and neighborhoods developing according to an internal logic.  Political economists disagree. They claim that city life is defined by people with power: corporate leaders and political officials. Capitalism, which transforms the city into real estate traded for profit and concentrates wealth in the hands of few, is the key to understanding city life.  From this point of view, for example the decline in industrial Snowbelt cities after 1950 was the result of deliberate decisions by the corporate elite to move their production facilities to the Sunbelt or to move them out of the country to low income nations. What is Globalization The development literature offers several definitions for participation, notably—and representatively—the following:  According to Richard Langhorne, “Globalization is the latest stage in a long accumulation of technological advance which has given human beings the ability to conduct their affairs across the world without reference to nationality, government authority, time of day or physical environment.”  According to Anthony Giddens, “Globalization means that we all increasingly live in a world where individuals, groups and nations are interdependent.” Factors contributing to Globalization  Intensified globalization has been driven forward above all by the development of information and communication technologies that have intensified the speed and scope of interaction between people all over the world.  As a simple example , football World Cup. Because of global television links, some matches are now watched by billions of people across the world. The rise of information and communication technology  Post 2nd world war, there has been a profound transformation in the scope and intensity of telecommunications flows.  Cable technology has become more efficient and less expensive.  The internet has emerged as the fastest-growing communication tools ever development.  These forms of technology facilitate the compression of time and space. Information flows:  The spread of info formation and technology has facilitated the flow of information about people and events in distance places. Such as the fall of the Berline wall, the violent crackdown on democratic protesters China’s Tiananmen Square and the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001.  First, a members of a global community, people increasingly perceive that social responsibility does not stop at national borders but instead extends beyond them. Example natural disaster, conflict, war etc.  7  Second, a global outlook means that people are increasingly looking to sources other than the nation-state in formulating their own sense of identity. Table: The global spread of internet usage (2007) World Regions Population % of world Usage % of world Africa 14.2 3 Asia 56.5 35.8 Europe 12.3 28.3 Middle East 2.9 17 North America 5.1 20.9 Latin America 8.5 8.7 Oceania/ Australia.5 1.7 World total 100 100 Economic factors  In contrast to previous eras, the global economy is no longer primarily agricultural or industrials in its basis. Rather, it is increasingly dominated by activity that is weightless and intangible.  This new economic context has been described using a variety of terms, including post industrial society, ‘the information age’ and ‘the new economy’.  Many aspects of the economy now work though networks that cross national boundaries, rather than stopping at them.  In order to be cooperative in globalizing conditions, business and corporations have restructured themselves to be more flexible and less hierarchical in nature. Example : partnering arrangements with others firms Transnational corporations  Transnational corporations are companies that produce goods or market services in more than one country. Ex. Coca-Cola, Kodak, Mitsubishi.  It became a global phenomenon in the years following the second world war.  This corporations accounts for two –third of all world trade. The electronic economy  The electronic economy now underpins economic globalization.  This new ability to move ‘electronic money’ instantaneously carries with it great risks.  8 Political Changes  Contemporary globalization is also related to political change. There are several aspects to this  First , the collapse of Soviet–style communism that occurred in a series of dramatically revolutions in eastern Europe in 1989 and culminated in the dissolution of the soviet union itself in1991.  A second important political factor leading to intensifying globalization is the growth of international and regional mechanism of government.  Finally, Globalization is being driven by international governmental organizations (IGOs) and international non-governmental organizations(INGOs). Contesting globalization  In recent years, globalization has became a hotly debated topic. Most people accept that there are important transformations occurring around us, but the extent to which it is valid to explain these a ‘globalization’ is contested.  David held and colleagues (1999) have surveyed the controversy and divided its participants into three schools of thought: 1) The Sceptics, 2) The hyper-globalizers and 3) The transformationalists 1) The Sceptics  Some analysts argue that the idea of globalization is overstated and that most theories of globalization amount to a lot of talk about something that is not really new.  The sceptics agree that there may now be more contract between countries than in previous eras, but in their eyes the current world economy is not sufficiently integrated.  Many sceptics focus on processes of rationalization within the world economy.  Sceptics also reject the view that globalization is fundamentally undermining the role of national governments and producing a world order in which they are less central. 2) The hyper-globalization  Hyper-globalizations take an opposing position to that of the sceptics. Globalization is seen as a process that is indifferent to national borders, producing a new global order, swept along by powerful flows of cross- border trade and production.  Much of the analysis of globalization offered by hyper-globalizers focuses on the changing role of the nation state. Such as the European union, the world trade organization and others.  Taken together, these shifts signal to the hyper-globalizers the dawning of a global age in which national governments decline in importance and influence [Albrow-1997].  9 3) The transformationalists  Transformationalists take a position some where between sceptics and hyper-globalizers. They see globalization as the central force behind a broad spectrum of changes but though the global order is being transformed, many of the old patterns remain.  Unlike hyper-globalizers transformationalists see globalization as a dynamic and open process that is subject to influence and change.  Rather that losing sovereignty as the hyper-globalizers argue, nation-states are restructuring in response to new forms of economics and social organization that are non-territorial In basis, including corporations social movements and international bodies. The impact of globalization  The chief focus of sociology has historically been the study of the industrialized society.  The industrialized and the developing societies have developed in interconnection with one another and are today more closely related than ever before. Example: industrialized societies depend on many raw materials on developing countries.  As the world rapidly moves towards a single unified economy, businesses and people move about the globe in increasing numbers in search of new markets and economic opportunities.  Just a dozen language have come to dominate the global language system, with more than 100 million speaks it and just one language –English has become ‘hyper-central’ as first choice for most second-language speakers.  It is increasingly impossible for discrete cultures to exist as islands. There are few , if any, places on earth so remote as to escape radio, television. Air travel and the throngs of tourists they bring or the computer.  within a globalization or two at the most, all the worlds' once-isolated cultures will be touched and transformed by global culture, despite their persistent efforts to preserve their age-old ways of life. They include:  Television, which brings British and American culture (BBC, MTV or friends) into homes throughout the world daily, while adapting cultural products from the Netherlands or Sweden for British and American audience,  The emergence of unified global economy with business whose factories, management structures and markets often span continents and countries.  ‘Global citizens’, such as managers of large corporations, who may spend as much time crises-crossing the global as they do at home, identifying with a global, cosmopolitan culture rather with that of their own nation.  A host of international organizations, including United Nations agencies, regional trade and mutual defense association, multinational banks and other global financial institutions, international labour and health organizations, and global tariff and trade agreements, that are creating a global political, legal and military framework. Electronic communications (telephone, fax, electronic mail , the internet and the World Wide Web) , which makes instantaneous communication with almost any part of the planet an integral part of daily life in the business world.  10 Capitalism and social inequality What is Capitalism?  Max Weber’s (1986: 12-14) definition of a “capitalist action” as an investment with the expectation of a profit. It is important to note that capital is an investment. There are other forms of wealth (such as money, real estate or a car) but they are not capital unless they are invested.  And there are other forms of making a profit, such as begging or stealing, but they are not capitalist unless they flow from an investment of capita. A capitalist is a human being that owns capital as a property before engaging in a capitalist action.  Capital is not the result of capitalism but a precondition. And it cannot be common property; capital and profit are private property, from which other people are excluded.  The individual capitalist invests in order to replace the original capital and to generate a surplus, which is the profit. The capital itself does not diminish, it is not spent but always replaced. The capitalist lives off the profit. What is social inequality  Inequality is usually studied in quantitative and economic terms. These generally refer to income and, less frequently, to profession or wealth.  Social inequality, which is not only determined by the distribution of economic goods and professions but also by the distribution of other forms of resources and habitus (Bourdieu, 1984) as well as by the historical development of society.  Social inequality signifies the differential access to activities, positions and goods that are valued in society - or the structure of privileges. It shows that the distribution of resources is not so much a result of competition but a heritage that is reproduced from one generation to the next. In capitalist societies, this legacy is passed on within boundaries of social classes. Colonialism  The first assumption we have to refute postulates that capitalism emerged within Europe due to its superior organization and productivity of the economy.  Adam Smith and Karl Marx agree that science, technology, the division of labor and the free market were responsible for the success of capitalism in Europe before it spread across the world.  Colonialism was the driving force of European capitalism before industry and technology began to matter. Colonialism was rooted in the crusades and played a crucial role in the expansion of the North Italian city states after 1000 CE.  Venice was the main mediator of trade between Asia and Europe between 1204 and 1453, but it was also involved in the crusades and practiced colonialism by occupying territories in the Eastern Mediterranean, where slaves and indented laborers produced agricultural and manufactured goods for the Venetian population, especially the elites.  The most important consequence of colonialism was the creation of an integrated unequal world order. In the process, Europe was industrialized, pre capitalist states were transformed into nation states, racism became an overarching ideology and close links between capital, trade and the state apparatus were formed.  11 Trade and Finance  Colonialism was closely linked to finance and trade. While in Venice trade between Asia and Europe was the focus, robbery formed the nucleus of English colonialism. Both were capitalist activities - which, following Weber, consists in the investment of capital with the expectation of a profit.  Marxists and classical economists usually argue that money is only a symbol for “real” values, especially manufactured goods. This is misleading. Finance capital is a means of power. It can be a value in itself, it does not have to represent anything else.  In addition, it is backed by the state, which is the owner of its entire territory, its infrastructure and, to some degree, its population. The state backs the capitalist’s claim to power by guaranteeing the “value” of a piece of paper. The power consists in the right to use labor, nature, resources and capital itself.  Financial capital has been an essential component of capitalism, no matter whether you date its beginning to the thirteenth century in Italy, the sixteenth century in Western Europe or the eighteenth century in Britain. Expropriation  There are reasons to date the beginnings of modern Western capitalism, which is called institutionalized capitalism, to Britain in the seventeenth century.  Three developments were significant to construct capitalism as an institution that comprises all sectors of society. Firstly, the population was disowned. Secondly, the United Kingdom was transformed into a nation state. Thirdly, national debt was privatized by a national bank.  In connection with colonialism, finance capital and the exploitation of resources that were already present in Italy, these are the most important historical determinants of institutionalized capitalism.  Expropriation forces everyone who has no capital to seek wage-labor. In all other forms of society, it was, in principle, possible to seek a piece of land and live off its produce. The nation state  The nation state differs from the feudal state in several regards.  First, it is no longer a private matter of the ruler but the ruler represents the population.  Second, the nation state has a legal framework.  Third, it has a territorial border. Fourth, the population is increasingly interpreted in a nationalistic way - with a supposedly uniform history, culture and language.  It entailed integration, pacification and control of the population on the inside and protection against the outside (Foucault, 1977). It also created a uniform national market on the inside and pursuit of profits on the outside.  12 Technology and industry  The key development of industrialization was the scientifically planned mass production, which first emerged in Great Britain after the late eighteenth century.  In this period, the classical works of economics were written by Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Karl Marx. They considered industry to be the core of capitalism and natural science the means to understand and administer it.  Industrial production was the core of capitalism only while profit rates were higher than in other spheres of the economy. This was the case only under colonial conditions.  The colonial powers were able to import their raw materials at a very low cost from the colonies, process them in their factories and sell the products at high prices.  With the end of colonialism and the shift of production to low-cost countries, profitability of the industrial sector decreased in Western countries. Capital returned to trade and finance. Capital and market  The economy in a capitalist society is organized as a market and comprises all productive activities. However, the majority of productive and necessary activities takes place outside the “market”.  The different segments of the economy - social economy, market, market economy and capitalism - do not exist independently of each other but capitalism seeks to incorporate those fields that could generate a profit. It thereby changes the other segments.  At the same time, elements of the market and the social economy persist within capitalism.  He has no problem admitting that there are classes in society and that people are born into and die in their class. Since the advent of democracy, this is no longer acknowledged. Everyone is supposed to be equal - in spite of the existence of slavery, exclusion of women and no voting rights for the poor. Today, with full suffrage for (almost) everyone and full economic rights for all, this seems to be a problem of the past. Political legitimation  That this rarely happens is partly due to the symbolic universe of capitalism and the way inequality is legitimized. Inequality in capitalism is supposed to be the result of competition between free and equal individuals - in contrast to other forms of organized states, which were openly unequal.  Adam Smith’s economics is basically an application of Hobbes’ socio-political science to the economy. In the Wealth of Nations, published in the same year as the American Declaration of Independence (1776), Smith explains that the market guarantees a maximum of productivity, quality and price efficiency, if it is an unfettered competition between legally free and equal individuals (Smith, 2007).  The same should be true for the world market of nation states. Nations and individuals should pursue their self-interest and, in the course, specialize on what they do best. Thereby, they would acquire relative advantages  Emergence of classes  13  Inequality is not a result of competition, it is a starting condition. All the inequalities mentioned in the previous paragraph persist because they have never been compensated for.  Women were given the right to vote - but at that point, men had already captured all leading positions in society and all capital. Slaves were freed - but they had no education, no money, no connections, no respect, no access to jobs and markets.  The poor were given the right to participate in the market - but they had no capital. The formerly excluded groups were able to achieve minimum rights through long struggles but they never received even a small fraction of the privileges of the formerly included groups. They were integrated as subalterns into the “democracy”. This is the basis of our invisible inequality.  The formerly underprivileged groups remain underprivileged and the formerly dominant groups mostly retain their dominant position. In capitalist society, these hierarchies slowly develop into social classes. Inequality and global capitalism  The nation state is at once the arena for the competition between national capitalists and the support structure for transnational expansion. The emergence of institutionalized capitalism was tied to colonialism and, as a consequence, was global from the start.  The structure of each nation state can be explained by a combination of its history and its position in the global capitalist system. We have to interpret the internal structure as a transformation of socio-cultures.  The position in the global system is a transformation of the state’s position in the colonial world and the order of the Cold War. Furthermore, the timing of the capitalist transformation and political measures as well as consequences of revolutions, war, disasters and other major events are important parameters in explaining the structures of inequality in detail. Migration General Terms and Concept  Migration is the third component of population change, the other two being mortality and fertility. The nature of migration as a factor affecting population size is different from that of mortality and fertility.  Migration is not a biological variable, while both mortality and fertility operate within the biological framework, though social, cultural, economic and political factors do exercise some influence on it.  Migration is a form of geographical mobility or spatial mobility between one geographical unit and another, generally involving a change in residence from the place of origin or place of departure to the place of destination or place of arrival. Types of migration  14  It is customary to study migration with respect to internal migration and international migration. Internal migration is the migration of persons within a country, while international migration refers to the movement of people from one country to another.  The term immigration and emigration refer respectively to movement into or out of a particular territory, and are used only in connection with international migration.  Thus migrants leaving Bangladesh to settle down in the united States are immigrants to the United States and emigrants from. Differential Migration Researchers in demography and sociology are interested in the study of migration differentials from different point of view. For example, students of demography are interested in the age-sex patterns of migrates as they affect the age-sex structure of the place of organ and that of the place of destination.  Deferential migration by age  Deferential migration by sex  Differential migration by marital status  Differential migration by educational attainment General Theories of Internal Migration  Migration is the adjustment of the migrants to their new places of residence and their assimilation in the general stream of life. As migration is affected by social, economic, political and situational factors, this field of study is of interest to sociologists, social psychologists, economists as well as political scientists.  Those who have tried to generalize about migration phenomena or have attempted to study the factors affecting internal migration movements, have adopted two distinctly different approaches.  The first approach is mainly situation-oriented in terms of push and pull factors, in the sense that it attempts to study the condition in the home which impel persons to move out of their place of origin on the one hand and the conditions and situation outside the attract persons on the others.  the second approach attempts to formulate empirical generalizations and describes patterns of migration, preferably in the form of mathematical models which are valid as universal laws. Push and pull factors in migration  Researchers have attempted to determine whether people Migrated because the circumstances prevailing at the place of origin pushed them out or whether they were lured by the attractive conditions in the new place.  Among the various push factors operating at the place of origin may be included in the following: high natural rate of population growth creating population pressure on the existing resources: exhaustion of natural resources; droughts, floods and natural calamities.  The following may be included as the pull factors: establishment of new industries with the provision of new opportunities for gainful employment; facilities for higher education in cities; pleasant climatic conditions etc.  15 Everett Lee’s conceptual framework for migration  Everett Lee has conceptualized the factors associated with the decision to migrate and the process of migration into the following four categories 1)factors associated with the areas of origin 2) factors associated with the area of destination 3) intervening obstacles and 4) personal factors.  Lee elaborates all these four categories by pointing out that, in each area, there are numerous factors which act to drive away the people from the area or to hold the people in the area or to attract the people to it.  In this respect, there are significant differences between the factors associated with the area of origin and those associated with the areas of destination. Intervening obstacles also have to be overcome before migration finally takes place. Characteristics of Migrants  Migration is selective  Migrants responding primarily to plus factors at destination tend to be positively selected  Push factors induce negative migration  When all migrants are considered together, selection for migration tends to be bimodal.  The degree of positive selection increases with the difficulties posed by the intervening obstacles.  The heightened propensity to migrate at certain stages of the life-cycle is important in the selection of migrants.  The characteristics of migrants tend to be intermediate between the characteristics of the population of the place of origin and the population of the place of destination. Population Demography: The study of population  The study of population issues engages the attention of both natural and social scientists. the biologists explores the nature of reproduction and casts light on factors that effected fertility, the level of reproduction in a society.  The medical pathologist examines and analyzed trends in the causes of death. Geographers, historians and psychologists also have distinctive contributions to make to our understanding of population.  16  In their study of population issues, sociologist aware that the norms, values and social patterns of a society profoundly affect various elements of population such as fertility, mortality and migration. Demography: The study of population  Fertility: Fertility is influenced by people’s age of entry into sexual unions and their use of contraception-both of which ,in turn reflect the social and religious values that guide a particular culture.  Morality: Mortality is shaped by a nation’s level of nutrition's, acceptance of immunization and provisions for sanitation as well as its general commitment to health care and health education.  Migration: Migration from one country to another can depend on marital and kinship ties, the relative degree of racial and religious tolerance in various societies and people’s evaluations of their employment opportunities. Demography Vs Population study  Demography refers to the study of population, especially with reference to size, density, and distribution, while population study refers to the study of people who share similar common features like age, sex, or health condition.  demography studies the whole population, whereas population studies focus only on a specific group in the general population.  Demography, especially formal demography, focuses on the measurement of population processes, while population studies also focus on the relationships between social, economic, cultural, and biological processes influencing a population.  Although demographers make decisions related to individuals in the population, in population studies, the decisions can be only made for the individuals who belong to the specific group taken from the general population. Malthus’s thesis and Marx’s response  Thomas Malthus’ theory of population proposed that, while food production grows arithmetically progression (1.2.3.4 and so on) and the human population grows geometrically progression(1.2.4.8.and so on).  The population would double in 25 years at this rate. That is, the food supply will be limited in a few years. The shortage of food supply indicates an increasing population.  Nature has its own ways of keeping a check on the increasing population. It brings the population level to the level of the available food supply. The positive checks include famines, earthquakes, floods, epidemics, wars, etc. Nature plays up when the population growth goes out of hand.  Preventive measures such as late marriage, self-control, and simple living, help to balance the population growth and food supply. These measures not only check the population growth, but can also prevent the catastrophic effects of the positive checks.  17  Karl Marx argued that starvation was caused by the unequal distribution of the wealth and its accumulation by capitalists. It has nothing to do with the population.  Population is dependent on economic and social organization. The problems of overpopulation and limits to resources, as enunciated by Malthus, are inherent and inevitable features associated with the capitalist system of production.  Marx’s contention that food production could not increase rapidly was also debated when new technology began to give farmers much greater 5delds.  French sociologist E. Dupreel (1977) argued that an increasing population would spur rapid innovation and development to solve problems, whereas a stable population would be complacent and less likely to progress. Elements of Demography  Demographers communicate population facts with a language derived from the basic elements of human life-birth and death.  Birthrate: the birth rate (or more specifically, the crude birthrate) is the number of live births per 1000 population in a given years.  In 2008 for example, there were 14 live births per 1000 people in the united states. The birth rate provides information on the reproductive patterns of a society.  Total Fertility Rate (TFR): one way demographers can project future growth in a society is to make use the total fertility rate (TFR).  The TFR is the average number of children born alive to any woman, assuming that she conforms to current fertility rates.  The TFR reported for the United States in 2010 was 2.0 live birth per woman, compared to over 7 births per woman in a developing country such as Niger.  Death rate: Mortality, like fertility, is measured in several different ways. The death rate (also known as the crude death rate) is the number of deaths per 1000 population in a given year.  In 2010, The united states had a death rate of 8.0 per 1000 population.  The infant mortality rate: The infant mortality rate is the number of deaths of infants under age 1 year per 1000 live births in a given year. This particular measure serves as an important indicator of society’s level of health care( see figure 19-1 page 413); it reflects prenatal nutrition, delivery procedures, and infant screening measures.  The infant mortality rate also functions as a useful indicator of future population growth, since those infants who survive to adulthood will contribute further population increases.  Life expectancy : A general measure of health used by demographers is life expectancy, the median number of the years a person can be expected to live under current mortality conditions.  18  Usually the figure is reported as life expectancy at birth. At present, Japan reports a life expectancy at birth of 83 years –slightly higher than the united states figure of 78 years. In contrast , life expectancy at birth is as low as 41 in the African nation of Lesotho.  Growth rate: the growth rate of a society is the difference between immigrants and emigrates per 1000 population.  For the world as a whole, the growth rate is simply the difference between births and deaths per 1000 population, science world wide immigration and emigration must of necessity be equal.  In 2010, the united states had a growth rate of.6%, compared to an estimated 1.2% for the entire world. Society & Technology  G. Lenski (1995) used the term socio-cultural evolution to refer to changes that occur as a society acquires new technology.  Society with simple technology, such as the Tuareg, have little control over nature, so they can support only a small number of people.  Technologically complex societies, while not necessarily ‘better’ support hundreds of millions of people who live highly specialized lives.  New technology sends ripples of change through a society’s entire way of life. When our ancestors first recovered how to harness the power of the wind using a sail, which took them to new lands, stimulated trade and increased their military might.  Moreover , the more technology a society has, the faster it changes. Modern , high technology societies, change so quickly that dramatic transformations can occurs during a single life time. Hunting and Gathering Societies  The simplest of all kinds of societies live by hunting and gathering, the use of simple tools to bunt animals and gather vegetation.  From the emergence of our species 3 million years ago until just 12000 years before the present, all humans were hunters and gathers.  Hunting and gathering societies are built on kinship. The family obtains, distributes food, protects and specialization related to age and gender.  Hunting and gathering societies have few formal leaders. Most recognized a shaman, a spiritual leader, who enjoys high prestige but receives no greater material rewards and must work to find food every one else.  19  Hunters and gathers employ simple weapons-the spear, bow and arrow & stone knife but rarely to wage war. Their real enemy is forces of nature.  Many die in childhood and no more than half reach the age of twenty. Horticultural and Pastoral Society  Ten to twelve thousand years ago, a new technology began to change the lives of human beings. People discovered horticulture, the use of hand tools to raise crops.  Not all societies abandoned hunting and gathering in favor of horticulture. Then, too, people inhabiting arid regions or mountainous areas found horticulture of little value. Such people turned to pastoralism, the domestication of animals. Today, societies that mix horticulture and pastoralism thrive in South America, Africa and Asia.  Once a society is capable of producing a material surplus- more resources than are needed to support day-to-day living- not everyone has to secure food.  As some families produce more food than others, they assume, positions of relative power and privilege. Forging alliances- including marriage- with other elite families allows social advantages to endure over generations. Agrarian society  About 5000 years ago, another technological revolution was underway in the middle east and would eventually transform most of the world. This was the discovery of agriculture, large-scale cultivation using plows harnessed to animals or more powerful energy sources.  So great was the social significance of the animal drawn plow and other technological innovations of the period- including irrigation, the wheel, writing, numbers and uses of various metals- that this era qualifies as ‘the dawn of civilization’.  Using animal-drawn plows, farmers could cultivate fields vastly larger than the garden-size plots worked by horticulturalists.  As always, increasing production meant more specialization. Tasks once performed by everyone, such as cleaning land and securing food, became distinct occupation.  Agrarian society looks more closely at the declining position of women at this point in the course of socio-cultural evolution. Industrial Societies  Industrialism, as found in the united states, Canada, and other rich nations of the world, is the production of good using advanced sources of energy to drive large machinery.  With industrial technology, societies began to change faster. Industrial societies transformed themselves more in one century than they had during the past thousand years.  20  work too , has changed. In agrarian societies, most men and women work in the home or in the nearby fields.  Occupational specialization has became more pronounced than ever. In facts, industrial people often size up one another in terms of their jobs rather than according to their kinship ties.  Industrial technology recast the family, too, lessening its traditional significance as the center of social life. Post Industrial Societies  Many industrial societies, have now entered yet another phase of technological development. A generation ago, sociologist Daniel Bell (1973) coined the term post-industrialism to refer to technology that supports an information based economy.  Whereas production in industrial societies centers on factories and machinery generating material goods, postindustrial production is based on computers and other electronic devices that create, process, store, apply information.  With this shift in key skill and the emergence of post-industrialism, a society’s occupational structure changes dramatically. Postindustrial society uses less and less of its labor force for industrial production.  The information Revolution is most pronounced in rich nations, yet the new technology affects the entire world. Just an industrial technology joined local communities to create a national economy, so postindustrial technology joins nations to built a global economy. The Limits of Technology  Technology remedies many human problems by raising productivity, reducing infectious disease, and sometimes simply reliving boredom. But it provides no quick fix for social problems.  Moreover, technology creates new problems that our ancestors hardly could imagine. Industrial societies provide more personal freedom, but often at the cost of the sense of community that characterized preindustrial life. Further although the most powerful nations in the world today rarely engage in all out warfare, they have stockpiles of nuclear weapons that could returns us to a technologically primitive state-if we survive at all.  Advancing technology has also contributed to a major social problem involving the environment.  In some respect, technological advances have improved life and brought the world’s people closer, into a global village. But establishing peace, ensuring justice and sustaining a safe environment are problems that technology alone cannot solve. Environment and Society  21  Our species has prospered , rapidly increasing the population of the planet. But these advances have come to high price. This disturbing development brings us : the interplay between the natural environment and society.  Like demography. Ecology is another cousin of sociology; it is the study of interaction of living organism and the natural environment. Ecology rests on the research not only of social scientists but of natural scientists as well.  The natural environment is the earth’s surface and atmosphere, including living organism, air, water, soil, other resources necessary to sustain life.  Simply because environmental problems from pollution to acid rain to global warning –do not arise from the ‘natural world’ operating on its own. Rather , such issues result from the specific actions of human beings, so they are social problem. The Global Dimension  The study of the natural environment requires a global perspective. Regardless of political divisions among nations, the planet is a single ecosystem, a system composed of the interaction of all living organisms and their natural environment.  The Greek meaning of eco is house reminding us that this planet is our home and that all living things and their natural environment are interrelated.  Consider, from an ecological point of view, United states national loves of eating hamburgers without giving a thought to the environment. Technology and the Environmental Deficit  The hunters and gathers society have scarcely any ability to affect the environment because they are small in number and poor and have only simple technology.  Societies at intermediate stages of technological development have a somewhat grater capacity to effect the environment. But the environmental impact of horticulture, pastoralism and even agriculture is limited because people still rely on muscle power to produce food and others goods.  Human ability to control the natural environment grew dramatically with the industrial revolution. Muscle power gave way to engines that burned fossil fuels: coal at first and then oil. The rich nations who represent just 18 percent of humanity, now 80 percent of world’s energy.  Evidence of mounting that we are running up an environmental deficit, profound and long –term harm to the natural environment caused by humanity’s focus on short-term material affluence. Culture: Growth and Limits  The logic of growth  The logic of growth is an optimistic view of the world. It holds that more powerful technology has improved our life and new discoveries will make to future better still.  The logic of growth responds by arguing that people will find a way out of any problem that growth places in our path. Ex: if the world runs shorts oil , we will come up with solar, hydrogen or nuclear engines to meet the world’s energy needs.  22  The limits of growth  The limits of growth thesis is that humanity must implement policies to control the growth of population, production and use of resources in order to avoid environmental collapse.  According to the limit of growth thesis, we are quickly consuming the earth’s finite resources. Limits to growth theories are also known as neo-Malthusians because the share Malthus’s pessimism about the future. Solid Waste : The Disposable Society  The average person in united state discards close to five pounds of paper, metal, plastic and others materials daily (over the life time, that’s about 50 tons). For the country as a whole, this amounts to about 1 billion pounds of solid waste each and every day.  Living in rich society, the average person in the United States consumes 50 times more steel, 170 times more newspaper, 250 times more gasoline and 300 times more plastic each year than the typical person on India.  Most of the cases We , ‘throw things away’. But 80 percent of our solid waste is not burned or recycled and never ‘goes away’. The environmental protection Agency has identified 30,000 dump sites across the United States containing hazardous materials that are polluting water both above and below the ground.  Environmentalist argue about solid waste that we should turn waste into a resource through recycling. Example : Japan but USA 30 percent reused Water and Air  Water supply  For thousand of years, since the time of the ancient civilizations of China, Egypt and Rome, water rights have figured prominently in codes of law.  Some regions of the world , especially the tropics , enjoy a plentiful supply of water. In the middle east, water supply is reaching a critical level  The global consumption of water has tripled since 1950. As a result people are using ground water faster than it can be replenished naturally. In Tamil Nadu region ground water is being used that the water table has fallen 100 feet over the last several decades  In light of development we must face the reality that water is valuable, finite resource. The average person consumes 10 million gallons in a life time and households around the world account for just 10 percent of water use. Industry which uses 25 percent of the global total and farming which consumes two-thirds of the total for irrigation. Water pollution  23  In large cities from Mexico City to Cairo to Shanghai –many people have no choice but to drink contaminated water. Infectious diseases like typhoid, cholera and dysentery, water borne micro- organisms spread rapidly.  Beside ensuring ample supplies of water then must protect quality of water  A special problem is acid rain-rain made acidic by air pollution that destroyed plant and animal life. Air pollution  Unexpected consequences of industrial technology, especially the factory and the motor vehicle , has been a decline in air quality.  If high income countries can breath a bit more easily than they once did, the problem of air pollution in poor societies is becoming more serious. The Rain Forests  Rain forests are regions of dense forestation, most of which circle the globe close to the equator.  The largest tropical rain forests are in south America, west-central Africa and southeast Asia. In all the world’s rain forests cover some 2 billion acres, or 7 percent of the Earth’s total land surface.  Like the global resources, rain forests are falling victim to the needs and appetites of the surging world population. To meet the demand for beef, ranchers in Latin America burn forested areas to increase their supply of grazing land.  under the economic pressure, the world’s rain forests are now just half their original size, and they continue to shrink by one percent (65000 square miles). Global warming  The production of carbon dioxide is rising while the amount of plant life on the earth is shrinking. To make matters worse, rain forests are being destroyed mostly by burning, while releases even more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.  High above the Earth, carbon dioxide acts like the glass roof of a greenhouse, letting heat from the sun pass through to the Earth while preventing much of it from radiating away from the planet. The result of this greenhouse effect, say ecologists, is Global Warming, a rise in Earth’s average temperature due to an increasing concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.  Over the last century, the global temperature has risen about 1.0 degree Fahrenheit. scientists warn that it could rise by 5 degree to 10 degree Fahrenheit during this century, which would melt vast areas of the polar ice caps and raise the sea level to cover low-lying land around the world.  A few scientists think global warming might even have benefits, including longer growing seasons and lower food prices. Declining biodiversity  On earth, there are as many 30 million species of animals, plants and microorganism. Several dozen unique species of plants and animals cease to exits everyday. Environmentalists giver three reasons:  First, our planets biodiversity provides a varied source of human food.  24  Second, the Earth’s biodiversity is a vital genetic resource.  Third, with the loss of any species of life-whether it is the magnificent California condor, the farmed Chinese panda, the spotted owl, or even one variety of ant-the beauty and complexity of our natural environment are diminished. Environmental Racism  Conflict theory has given rise to the concept of environmental racism, to pattern by which environmental hazards are greatest for poor people, especially minorities.  In part, because the poor themselves were drawn to factories in search of work, also their low incomes often meant they could afford housing only in undesirable neighborhoods.  Nobody wants a factory or dump nearby, but the poor have little power to resist. Sociological perspectives on the Environment  We have seen that the environment people live in has a noticeable effect on their health. Those who live in stressful, overcrowded places suffer more from disease from those who do not. Likewise, people has a noticeable effect on their environment.  Around the world, increases in population, together with the economic development that accompanies them, have had serious environmental consequences.  Though environmental problems may be easy to identify, devising socially and politically acceptable solutions to them is much more difficult. In this section we will see what sociologists say about the trade-off between economic growth and development and its effects on the environment. In the section that follows we will look more closely at specific environmental effects Human Ecology  Human ecology is an area of study that is concerned with the interrelationships between people and environment.  Every thing is connected to everything else. For example, scientific research has linked pollutants in the physical environment to people’s health and behavior.  To increasing prevalence of asthma, lead poisoning and cancer have all been tied to human alterations to the environment and ecological changes in our food and diet have been related to early obesity and diabetes.  In facing the environmental challenges of 21 century, government policy makers and environmentalists must determine how they can fulfill human’s pressing needs for food, clothing and shelter while preserving the environment. Conflict view of the Environment  The conflict perspective, less affluent nations are being forced to exploit their mineral deposits, forests and fisheries in order to meet their dept obligations. The poor turn to only means of survival available to them: they plow mountain slopes, burn plots in tropical forests and overgraze grasslands.  25  Brazil exemplifies the interplay between economic troubles and environmental destruction. Each year more than 5,7 million acres of forest are cleared for crops and livestock. The elimination of rain forest affects worldwide weather patterns, heightening the gradual warming of the earth.  The industrialized nations of north America and Europe account for only 12 percent of world population but are responsible for 60 percent consumption,  Allan-Schnaiberg (1994) analysis by shifting the focus from affluent consumers to the capitalist system as the cause of environmental troubles. A capitalist system creates a treadmill of production because of its inherent need to built ever-expanding profits. Ecological Modernization  Ecological modernization, an approach that emerged in the 1980s, focus on the alignment of environmentally favorable practices with economic self-interest through constant adaption and restructuring.  Ecological modernization can occur on both the macro and micro levels. On a macro level, adaption and restructuring can mean reintegrating industrial waste back into the production process. On a micro level, it can mean reshaping individual lifestyles, including the consumption patterns described at the start of this chapter.  In a sense, those who practice ecological modernization seek to refute the of-expressed notion that being environmentally conscious means “going back to nature” or “living off the grid”. Even modest changes in production and consumption patterns, they believe, can increase environmental sustainability Environmental justice  Environmental justice is a legal strategy based on claims that racial minorities are subjected disproportionately to environmental hazards. Some observers heralded environmental justice as the ‘new civil rights of the 21st century (Kokmen-2008).  In general poor people and people of color are much more likely than others to be victimized by everyday consequences of our built environment, including the air pollution from expressways & incinerators.  The environmental justice movement has become globalized for several reasons. These groups have begun to network across international borders, to share their tactics and remedies.  Sociologist have emphasized both interconnectedness of humans and the environment and the divisiveness of race and social class in their work on humans and their alteration of the environment. Scientists too have taken different approaches, disagreeing sharply on the likely outcome of environmental change.