Roman Architecture PDF

02-10-2018 AP 1002D HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE - I ROMAN CIVILIZATION F A C U L T Y AR. AF I F A N U Z H AT DEPART...

02-10-2018 AP 1002D HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE - I ROMAN CIVILIZATION F A C U L T Y AR. AF I F A N U Z H AT DEPARTMENT OF ARCHI TECTURE AND PLANNI NG NATI ONAL I NSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY CALI CUT Lecture-13 17th September 2018 1  02-10-2018 Geography The sea coast of Italy, although the peninsula is long and narrow, is not nearly so much broken up into bays, or natural harbours, as the shore line of Greece, neither are there so many islands studded along its coasts. Again, although many parts of Italy are mountainous the great chain of the Apennines running from one end of the peninsula to the other yet the whole land is not divided up into little valleys in the same way as the greater part of Greece. The Greek and Italian nations may therefore with fair accuracy be compared as follows : (a.) The Romans never became a seafaring people like the Greeks, nor did they send out colonists of the same description to all parts of the then known world. (b.) There were few rival cities in Italy at this period and the small towns, being less jealous of their separate independence, the Roman power could be built up by a gradual absorption of small states, a process that was never completed by Athens or Sparta. The position of Italy enabled her to act as the intermediary in spreading over the continent of Europe the arts of civilization. 2  02-10-2018 Geology The geological formation of Italy differs from that of Greece, where the chief and almost the only building material is marble. In Italy marble, terra-cotta, stone, and brick were largely used even for the more important buildings. In Rome the following materials were at hand : Travertine, a hard limestone from Tivoli ; Tufa, a volcanic substance of which the hills of Rome are mainly composed ; and Peperino, a stone of volcanic origin from Mount Albano. Besides these, Lava and Pozzolana, derived from volcanic eruptions, and excellent sand and gravel were plentiful. The existence of Pozzolana (a clean sandy earth) found in thick strata in the district, gave the Roman a material which contributed largely to the durability of their architecture, for it has extraordinary properties of hardness, strength and durability, when mixed into concrete with lime. The walls were generally formed of concrete and were faced in a decorative way with brick, stone, alabasters, porphyries, or marbles of all kinds, hewn from countless Oriental quarries by whole armies of workmen. Roman architecture, as it spread itself over the whole of the then known world, was influenced naturally by the materials found in the various parts where it planted itself, but concrete, in conjunction with brick and stone casing or banding, was the favourite material ; although in Syria, notably at Palmyra and Baalbec, and in Egypt the quarries supplied stones of enormous size, which were used locally. Climate The north has the climate of the temperate region of continental Europe ; central Italy is more genial and sunny ; while the south is almost tropical. 3  02-10-2018 Religion The heathen religion of ancient Rome being looked upon as part of the constitution of the state, the worship of the gods came eventually to be kept up only as a matter of state policy. The emperor then received divine honours, and may almost be described as the leader of the Pantheon of deities embraced by the tolerant and wide-spreading Roman rule. Officialism therefore naturally stamped its character on the temple architecture. Roman religion was polytheistic. From an initial array of gods and spirits, Rome added to this collection to include both Greek gods as well as a number of foreign cults 4  02-10-2018 Social and political In early times three chief nations dwelt in the peninsula. In the central portion (or Etruria) lived the Etruscans, probably an Aryan people, who appear to have been settled in Italy before authentic history begins, and who were great builders. In the south the Greeks had planted many colonies, which were included in the name of " Magna Graecia." The remainder of Italy (exclusive of Cisalpine Gaul) was occupied by tribes of the same Aryan race as the Greeks, and the common forefathers of both must have stayed together after they had separated from the forefathers of the Celts, Teutons and others. But long before history begins the Greeks and Italians had separated into distinct nations, and the Italians had further split up into separate nations among themselves. The common form of government in ancient Italy resembled that of Greece, consisting of towns or districts joined together in leagues. The government of Rome was effected firstly by chosen kings, aided by a senator and popular assembly, but about B.C. 500 it became Republican, and under Augustus Caesar in B.C. 27 the Empire originated. The "Building Acts “ of Augustus, Nero, and Trajan had considerable influence on the development in Rome. Historical The foundation of Rome is of uncertain date, but is generally taken at B.C. 750. The Republic engaged in many wars, conquering several Etruscan cities, but was defeated in B.C. 390, at the hands of the Gauls, who continued for some time to hold the northern part of Italy. About B.C. 343 began the Roman conquest of Italy, which was effected in about sixty years, and resulted in the dominion of a city over cities. Then came the wars with peoples outside Italy, Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, being first subdued. The first Punic war (B.C. 264-241) against Carthage, when brought to a conclusion, resulted in Sicily becoming the first Roman province. The second Punic war (B.C. 218-201) was the most severe struggle in which the Romans had engaged, for Hannibal, the great Carthaginian general, entering Italy from Spain, defeated all the Roman armies, and maintained himself in Italy until recalled by a counter attack of the Romans, under Scipio, upon Carthage itself. The third Punic war (B.C. 149-146) ended in the total destruction of Carthage, which, with its territory, became a Roman province in Africa. At the same time were effected the conquest of Macedonia and Greece, the latter becoming a province in B.C. 146, which induced the importation of Greek artists and works of art. Greece formed a stepping stone to Western Asia, which in turn gradually acknowledged the Roman power, till in B.C. 133 it also became a province. With the conquests of Spam and Syria, the Roman empire extended from the Atlantic ocean to the Euphrates, while Caesar's campaigns in Gaul in B.C. 59, made the Rhine and the English Channel its northern boundaries. In B.C. 55 Caesar crossed into Britain. The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage from 264 BC to 146 BC. At the time, they were some of the largest wars that had ever taken place. The term Punic comes from the Latin word Punicus (or Poenicus), meaning "Carthaginian", with reference to the Carthaginians' Phoenician ancestry 5  02-10-2018 This tide of conquest swept on in spite of civil war at home, and eventually rendered the empire a political necessity owing to the difficulty of governing so many provinces- under the previous system. On Pompey's defeat at Pharsalia, Julius Caesar remained without a rival, but was murdered in B.C. 44. Then followed a period of great confusion lasting 13 years. The Triumvirate, consisting of Marcus Antonius, Caius Octavius (great nephew to Caesar) and Marcus ^Emilius Lepidus, were opposed to Brutus and Cassius, and eventually defeated them. On the defeat ot Antony at Aktion, Augustus Caesar (Julius 7 Caesar's nephew) was made emperor B.C. 27, and governed till his death, A.D. 41. The Augustan age was one of those great eras in the ^world's history like that succeeding the Persian wars in Greece, the Elizabethan age in England, and the beginning of the nineteenth century in Europe, in which what seems a new spring in national and individual life calls out an idealizing retrospect of the past. The poets Virgil (B.C. 70-19), Horace (-B.C. 65-8), Ovid (B.C. 43 A.D. 17), and Livy the historian (B.C. 59 A.D. 17), were all contemporaries. Following Augustus came a line of emperors, of whom Nero (A.D. 54-69), Vespasian (69-79), Trajan (98-117), Hadrian (117-138) under whom the empire expanded to its greatest extent Septimius Severus (193-211), Caracalla (211-217) and Diocletian (284- 305) were the most active in architectural matters. Italy went out of cultivation and depended on imported corn. A turbulent populace, and the huge armies required to keep in check the barbarian tribes on every frontier, dominated the government. Emperors soon chosen were sooner murdered, and the chaos that gradually set in weakened the fabric of the empire. Architecture then fell into complete decay until the vigorous efforts of Constantine (A.D. 306-337) did something for its revival, which in large measure was also due to a new force, Christianity, which had been growing up and which received official recognition under this emperor Architectural character The Romans adopted the columnar and trabeated style of the Greeks, and joined to it the Arch, the Vault and the Dome, which it is presumed they borrowed from the Etruscans, and this union of beam and arch is the keynote of the style in its earliest developments. The orders, usually attached and superimposed, were chiefly decorative features ceasing to have, their true constructive significance. The practical spirit of the Romans, however, urged them to make a more economical use of materials, and instead of composing the walls of their monuments of squared-blocks of stone, they inaugurated the use of concrete, a material consisting of small fragments of stone or quarry debris mixed with lime or mortar. These materials, not being special to any country, were used with success in every part of the Empire, and gave a similarity to all Roman buildings. The Romans by their extended use of concrete founded a new constructional system and employed it in the most diverse situations, adapting it with rare sagacity to their new needs, and utilizing it in the most important projects. 6  02-10-2018 The various kinds of walling may be divided into two classes : opus quadratum, i.e., rectangular blocks of stone with or without mortar joints, frequently secured with dowels or cramps, and concrete unfaced or faced, used especially in Italy. As stated, this was a building mixture formed of lime and lumps of tufa, peperino, broken bricks, marble or pummice stone, and from the first century B.C. was used extensively for various building purposes. Unfaced concrete was usually used for foundations, and faced concrete for walls. The latter was of four varieties : i. Concrete faced with “ opus incertum" (No. 46 B), which was the oldest kind, the concrete backing being studded with irregular shaped pieces of stone, mainly used in the first and second centuries B.C. ii. Concrete faced with “ opus reticulatum “ (No. 46 c), so called from its resemblance to the meshes of a net (reticulum) the joints being laid in diagonal lines. iii. Concrete faced with brick (testae), used from the first century B.C. to the end of the Western Empire. The walling was faced with bricks, triangular on plan and usually about 1.5 inches thick (No. 46 D). iv. Concrete with "opus mixtum" consisting of a wall of concrete having in addition to the ordinary brick facing bands of tufa blocks at intervals. opus incertum 7  02-10-2018 opus reticulatum 8  02-10-2018 opus mixtum Vaulting Although, as pointed out, the vault had been previously used by the Assyrians, the early Greeks, and the Etruscans, yet the Romans generalized vaulting as a structural system dating from the first century of the present era. They made it simple and practical by the employment of concrete, by which they covered the largest areas even now in existence. The effect was far reaching and gave freedom in the planning of complex structures, which were easily roofed, the vaults being of any form, and easily constructed on rough centres or temporary supports till the concrete was set. It will thus be understood that vaults of concrete had a very important effect on the forms of Roman buildings, and they were employed universally, so much so, that every Roman ruin is filled with their debris. The kinds of vault employed were as follows : (a.) The semicircular or waggon-headed vault resting on two sides of the covered rectangle was used in apartments whose walls were sufficiently thick. (b.) The cross-vault was utilized for covering a square apartment, the pressure being taken by the four, angles. When used over corridors and long apartments the pressure being exerted on points of division (Nos. 58 and 60), left the remainder of the walls free for window openings. If the oblong compartment or hall were very wide, and the side walls had to be pierced by large openings, it was divided into square bays generally three in number and covered with groined vaults, that is to say, a longitudinal half-cylinder, of the diameter of the hall, intersected by three half-cylinders of similar diameter, (c.) Hemispherical domes or cupolas (cupa cup) (Nos. 54 and 55), were used for covering circular structures as in the Pantheon. Semi-domes were employed for exedrse and other recesses (No. 46 K). 9 02-10-2018 10  02-10-2018 Mural paintings were executed on the prepared stucco, and may be classified as follows : Fresco painting, Tempera painting, Varnish painting, and Caustic painting. 11  02-10-2018 Etruscan Architecture In dealing with Roman Architecture mention must be made of the Etruscans or early inhabitants of central Italy, who were great builders, and whose methods of construction had a marked effect on that of the Romans. The style dates from about B. c. 750, and from their buildings it is known that they were aware of the value of the true or radiating arch for constructive purposes, and used it extensively in their buildings. The architectural remains consist chiefly of tombs, city walls, gateways (as at Perugia), bridges and aqueducts, and their character is similar to the early Pelasgic work at Tiryns and Mycenae 12  02-10-2018 Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus There are no remains of Etruscan temples, but Vitruvius gives a description of them. The Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was the most important Etruscan example (dedicated B.C. 509), and is generally taken as being typical. Its cella was divided into three chambers containing statues of Jupiter, Minerva and Juno, and was nearly square on plan, with widely spaced columns and wooden architraves. It was burnt in B.c. 83 and rebuilt by Sulla, who brought some of the marble Corinthian columns from the Temple of Zeus Olympius at Athens. 13  02-10-2018 Roman Architecture followed the Etruscan, was a composite style derived by the union of the Greek and Etruscan styles. The principal examples of Roman architecture were chiefly erected during 400 years, viz., between B.C. 100 and A.D. 300. The principal remains are found not only in Italy, but throughout Europe to wherever the Roman occupation extended. 14  02-10-2018 FORA The Forum corresponded with the Agora in a Greek city, and was an open space used as a meeting place and market, or a rendezvous for political demonstrators, corresponding to the Place of a French country town, the market place of English country towns, and to the Royal Exchange or probably Trafalgar Square in the Metropolis. The forum was usually surrounded by porticos, colonnades and public buildings, such as temples, basilicas (halls of justice), senate house, and shops, and was adorned with pillars of victory and memorial statues of great men. The " Forum Romanum " was the oldest, and grouped around it were some of the most important historical buildings. The Forum Romanum was in early times also used as a hippodrome and for contests, which in after years during the Empire took place in the amphitheatres. This and the Forum of Trajan, which was the largest of all, were the most important. The others include those of Julius Caesar, Augustus Vespasian and Nerva. The models in the Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool, and the Crystal Palace, give a good idea of the appearance of this important centre of architectural history. Pompeii also possessed an important Forum. 15 02-10-2018 16  02-10-2018 Temples The Roman temples were the result of the amalgamation of the Etruscan and Greek types, for they resembled in many respects Greek examples, but their prostyle arrangement and the use of the podium was derived from Etruscan temples. The characteristic temple is known as pseudo-peripteral ,and had no side colonnades as was usuar in Greek examples, the order of columns being attached to the flank walls and arranged as a prostyle portico towards the front only. Steps were provided at the principal end, between projecting wing walls, which often supported groups of statuary, and were continued along the flanks and back of the temple as a podium or continuous pedestal (Nos. 1 8 G, 49, 50) (page 167). Whereas Greek peripteral temples were normally twice as long as their width, the Roman examples were very much shorter. The size of the cella was frequently increased, being usually the whole width of the temple, which was used as a museum for Greek statuary and as a treasure store. As the architraves were supported by the enclosing walls on the flanks, temples could also be built on a larger scale than in the Greek style. The abolition of the encircling colonnade and the continuous stylobate of steps resulted in a certain loss of unity in comparison with Greek examples, which in most cases were isolated and visible from all sides ; whereas the Roman temples were specially intended to be seen from the forum or open space upon which they usually faced, the front being therefore made important by the deep portico and flight of steps. 17  02-10-2018 Rectangular Examples The Temple of Mars Ultor, Rome The Temple of Mars Ultor, Rome (B.C. 42-2) (No. 52), stood in the Forum of Augustus, in a precinct surrounded by an enclosing wall 100 feet high. It was one of the largest Roman temples, having columns 58 feet in height, but there are only three columns and a pilaster remaining, the capital of the latter being shown in No. 67 G. The temple and its surrounding area enclosed with walls of immense height were built by Augustus in fulfilment of a vow before the battle of Philippi which avenged the death of ceaser hence the dedication to mars Ulto or Avenger. The exterior of the temple was constructed using the Italian white Luna marble from Cararra. The Corinthian columns were arranged in a row of eight on the façade and eight down each side, three of which are still standing today. The flooring was laid with a mixture of coloured marble. The column capitals and those of the pilasters were especially interesting as, instead of the usual volutes, they had representations of Pegasus who was thought to carry the thunderbolts of Zeus, the god’s traditional weapons. 18 02-10-2018 19  02-10-2018 The Temple of Venus and Rome The Temple of Venus and Rome (A.D. 123-135) (No. 50), had a peculiar plan consisting of two cellas, each provided with an apse placed back to back, and a pronaos at each end. It was pseudo-dipteral decastyle (No. 4711 ), the peristyle having twenty columns on the flanks, and the cella walls were of extra thickness to take the thrust of the vault. Internally there were niches for statues, and the cella was crowned with a hemispherical coffered vault, the apses having semi-domes. The plan on No. 47" gives the usually accepted restoration of this building, and that by Palladio is given on No. 50 A, B, c, D. This temple was raised on a platform and stood in a large enclosure, entered through imposing gateways, surrounded by a colonnade of nearly 200 columns of red and grey Egyptian granite and red porphyry, occupying in all an area of about 540 by 340 feet. 20  02-10-2018 The Maison Carree, Nimes The Maison Carree, Nimes (A.D. 117-138) (Nos. 18 G, 50 H, j, K, and 51), was erected during the reign of Hadrian, and is the best preserved Roman temple in existence. It is of the typical form, being pseudo-peripteral prostyle hexastyle, with Corinthian columns supporting a rich entablature, and raised on a podium about 12 feet high provided with a front flight of steps only. 21  02-10-2018 Temple of Diana, Nimes The so-called Temple of Diana, Nimes (No. 50 E, F, G), was probably a nymphaeum (was a monument consecrated to the nymphs, especially those of springs ) connected with some thermae. The interior walls have detached Corinthian columns, supporting a cornice from which springs a stone-ribbed barrel vault, the thrust of which is counteracted by smaller continuous vaults over the side passages, probably a prototype of the vaulting of many southern French Romanesque churches. Nymph: a mythological spirit of nature imagined as a beautiful maiden inhabiting rivers, woods Thermae usually refers to the large imperial bath complexes 22  02-10-2018 The Great Temple, Baalbec The Great Temple, Baalbec (A.D. 131-161) (No. 53), was dipteral decastyle, but only six columns now remain. It stood in a court 380 feet square with recessed porticos, in front of which was a hexagonal cortile entered by a dodecastyle Corinthian portico in antis. The buildings were constructed with large blocks of stone without cement, and the columns were built up in three pieces. 23  02-10-2018 The Temple of Jupiter, Baalbec The Temple of Jupiter, Baalbec (A.D. 273), is peripteral octastyle with a vaulted sanctuary at the west end, approached by a flight of steps. The interior was ornamented with half-Corinthian columns having returned entablature, from which sprung the coffered vault. Between the columns were two tiers of niches. 24  02-10-2018 Circular and Polygonal Examples 25  02-10-2018 The Temple of Mater Matuta, Rome The Temple of Mater Matuta, Rome, formerly known as the Temple of Vesta, is situated in the Forum Boarium, and is circular peripteral, having twenty Corinthian columns, 34 feet 7 inches in height and 3 feet 2 inches in diameter, and therefore nearly eleven diameters high. These surround a cella 28 feet in diameter, and rest on a podium 6 feet high. It is built of Parian marble, with the exception of the podium, which is of tufa, and is approached by a flight of marble steps. The roof was probably of wood covered with bronze tiles. The V-shaped section of the leaves indicates the.work of a Greek artist. It is now the Church of S. M. del Sole. 26  02-10-2018 The Pantheon, Rome The Pantheon, Rome(Nos. 33, 37 A, B, c, 54, 55, 56, 57 E) is now, owing to the investigations of M. Chedanne in 1892, known to belong to two distinct periods. The circular portion, known as the Rotunda, occupies the site of an older uncovered piazza, used as a " nymphaeum," or place for plants, flowers, and running water, the level of its floor being 8 feet below the present level. In front of this “ nymphaeum," and facing towards the south, was a decastyle portico, forming a frontispiece to a three-cell temple of the Etruscan type, built by Agrippa during the reign Of Augustus, B.C. 27-A.D. 14. The present Rotunda was erected by the Emperor Hadrian, in A.D. 120-124, on the site of the more ancient “ nymphaeum," the portico to the Etruscan temple being taken down and re-erected at the higher level. As rebuilt this portico was made octastyle instead of decastyle, and was made to face the north instead of the south. The Rotunda (now the Church of S. Maria Rotonda) is a circular structure having an internal diameter of 142 feet 6 inches, which is also its internal height. The walls, of concrete (opus incertum), with a layer of tiles every three feet in height, are 20 feet in thickness, and have eight great recesses, one of which forms the entrance ; three of the remaining seven are semi-circular exedrae, the other four being rectangular on plan. Two columns are placed on the front line of these recesses, above which are relieving arches. The eight piers have niches entered from the exterior of the building, formed in three heights, of which the lower are semicircular on plan, and are 19 feet high to the springing of their hemispherical heads, the second tier have their floor on the samelevel as the cornice over the inner order, and the third tier are level with and entered from the second cornice of the exterior. In front of the Rotunda is the Corinthian octastyle portico, 1 10 feet wide by 60 feet deep in the centre, the first, third, sixth and eighth columns having two others behind them. At the back of the portico are niches, and staircases by which to ascend to the various parts of the edifice. The columns, 42 feet 6 inches high, in front of the recesses in the interior, are believed to be part of the original design of Hadrian's architect. The lighting is effected solely by one circular unglazed opening, 27 feet in diameter, formed in the crown of the dome, and still retaining its circular bronze cornice 27 02-10-2018 28  02-10-2018 The Temple of Jupiter, Spalato The Temple of Jupiter, Spalato (in Diocletian's Palace) (A.D. 284) (No. 59), is a further development of the Pantheon. Externally it is octagonal, surrounded by a low peristyle of Corinthian columns, but the interior of the cella is circular, 43 feet 8 inches in diameter, with four circular recesses and three square, the entrance corresponding to a fourth. Between these are placed eight Corinthian columns with Composite ones superimposed, advanced slightly in front of the face of the wall. The whole is raised on a podium, and crowned with a remarkable domical vault constructed in tiers of brick arches, externally presenting a pyramidal form. 29 02-10-2018 30  02-10-2018 The Circular Temple, Baalbec The Circular Temple, Baalbec(A.D. 273) (No. 60 D, E, F), has a circular cella raised on a podium and approached by a flight of steps. It is surrounded by eight Corinthian columns, six of which are well advanced from the cella wall, and occupy the positions resulting from the division of a circle into seven equal parts. The entrance is placed centrally on the seventh division of the circle, and has a column on either side. The cella wall has Corinthian pilasters, between which are semicircular niches for statuary. The line of the entablature is curved inwards towards the cella between the six columns above mentioned. Internally it has superimposed Ionic and Corinthian orders. 31  02-10-2018 Basilicas These, erected as halls of justice and as exchanges for merchants, comprise some of the finest buildings erected by the Romans, and bear witness to the importance of law and justice in their eyes. Originally, the word was used to describe an ancient Roman public building, where courts were held, as well as serving other official and public functions. The basilica was centrally located in every Roman town, usually adjacent to the main forum. The usual plan was a rectangle, whose length was two or three times the width. Two or four rows of columns' ran through the entire length, resulting in three or five aisles, and galleries were usually placed over these. The entrance was at the side or at one end, and the tribunal at the other on a raised dais, generally placed in a semicircular apse, which was sometimes partly cut off from the main body of the building by columns. Ranged round the apse were seats for the assessors, that in the centre, which was elevated above the rest, being occupied by the Praetor or Questor. In front of the apse was the altar, where sacrifice was performed before commencing any important business. The building was generally covered with a wooden roof, and the exterior seems to have been of small pretensions, in comparison with the interior. 32  02-10-2018 Trajan's (the Ulpian) Basilica Trajan's (the Ulpian) Basilica, Rome (A.D. 98) (Nos. 47*, 58 B, E), of which Apollodorus of Damascus was the architect was a fine example of the wooden roofed type. Entered from Trajan's Forum, it had a central nave 87 feet wide with double aisles, each 23 feet 9 inches wide, and an internal length excluding the apses of 385 feet. The total internal height was about 120 feet. The columns on the ground story separating the nave and aisles were of red granite from Syene, with white marble Corinthian capitals. At each end were semicircular apses, reached by flights of steps, having sacrificial altars in front of them. Galleries were formed over the side aisles, reached by steps as shown on the plan. Adjoining the Basilica were the Greek and Latin libraries, and Trajan's famous Column (page 156) stood in an open court between them. 33  02-10-2018 The Basilica of Maxentius or Constantine, Rome The Basilica of Maxentius or Constantine, Rome (A.D. 312) (Nos. 46 i, 47% 58 A, c, D), formerly erroneously known as the Temple of Peace, consists of a central nave 265 feet long by 83 feet wide between the piers, crowned at a height of 1 20 feet by an immense groined vault in three compartments. To the north and south are aisles roofed with three great semicircular vaults, each 76 feet in span, springing from walls placed at right angles to the nave. These walls had communicating openings formed in them, and aided by the weight of the aisle vaults, supported that of the nave. Monolithic columns were attached to the face of these piers, and supported pieces of entablature from which sprung the groined vaults. There were two apses, one to the north and one to the west of the central nave. Light was introduced in the upper part of the nave over the aisle vaults by means of lunettes, or semicircular windows in the wall formed by the intersecting vaulting. 34  02-10-2018 Thermae The Thermae or great public baths are quite as characteristic of Roman civilization as the amphitheatres, being probably derived from the Greek gymnasia. The principal existing remains are found at Rome and Pompeii in a ruined state, but much can be learned from the published drawings of the Italian architect, Palladio, made in the sixteenth century, when they were better preserved, and from the restorations of French students sent to Rome as prize winners of the Ecole des Beaux- Arts. The Thermae supplied the place of the modern daily papers for the dissemination of news and gossip, and also answered in a measure the purposes of a modern club as a rendezvous of social life. In general arrangement they usually consisted of three main parts : A great central block. This was planned for the baths proper, the processes of bathing resembling the modern Turkish bath. The Tepidarium (warm room for bathers to rest in), Calidarium (hot room, usually containing a warm water bath), Laconium or Sudatorium (the hottest room, usually a circular domed apartment), and a Frigidarium (cool room, usually containing a cold swimming bath "piscina") were the most important apartments ; added to which there were the Apodyteria (rooms for undressing), Unctuarium (rooms for oils, pomades or ointments, where the “ aliptae “ anointed the bathers and performed the rubbing down, shampooing with the "strigillus" or scraper, oiling and sanding the body). The Sphgeristerium (place for the games of ball), libraries, and small theatre occasionally formed part of the central structure. A large open space. This surrounded the central block and was frequently laid out as a stadium, with raised seats for spectators. It was also used for various athletic exercises (such as wrestling, races, boxing), or for lounging, and portions were planted with trees and ornamented with statues. An outer ring of apartments. These consisted of lecture rooms for the hearing of discourses, open colonnades, exedrae or recesses for the philosophers, poets and statesmen, and other necessary apartments. A large reservoir frequently occupied one side, being supplied by a special aqueduct from a distance. This reservoir supplied the Frigidarium, Tepidarium and Calidarium in succession. The external apartments were frequently let off as shops or utilized for the accommodation of the numerous slaves who formed part of the establishment. The whole block was frequently raised on a high platform, underneath which were the furnaces and other rooms for the service of the baths. 35 02-10-2018 36  02-10-2018 The Thermae of Caracalla, Rome The Thermae of Caracalla, Rome (A.D. 212-235) (Nos- 46 F > G, H, K and 59 A), accommodating 1,600 bathers, are the most important of all the remains, and give a splendid idea of their size and magnificence. The entire site including gardens was raised on an artificial platform 20 feet high, measuring 1,150 feet (over one-fifth of a mile) each way, not including the segmental projection on three of the sides. Under this platform were communicating corridors leading to various parts of the establishment, vaulted chambers used as stores, the hypocaust, and furnaces for heating the water and hot air ducts. Along the road front was a colonnade having behind it a row of small chambers in two stories, the lower at the street level, probably used as shops, and the upper on the platform level, for private "slipper" baths. The entrance to the establishment was in the centre of the north-eastern facade, and led to the large open enclosure laid out for wrestling and other games, around which, in the segmental projections and elsewhere, were grouped the various halls for dramatic representations and lectures. The central building, used entirely for bathing, measured 750 feet by 380 feet, and therefore covered an area of 285,000 square feet, i.e., about equal to Westminster Palace (including Westminster Hall), but greater than either the British Museum or the London Law Courts. Only four doorways were formed on the north-east side, which was exposed to cold winds, but large columned openings, giving access to the gardens, were a feature of the south-western front. Internally the Tepidarium, forming the principal hall, around which the subsidiary apartments were grouped, constituted the controlling feature of the plan to which the other apartments were subordinated. It was 170 feet by 82 feet, roofed with an immense semicircular intersecting concrete vault, 108 feet above the floor, formed in three compartments, and supported on eight portions of entablature resting on granite columns, 38 feet high and 5 feet 4 inches in diameter, placed in front of the massive piers. This great apartment was lighted by clerestory windows, high in the walls, admitting light over the roofs of adjoining halls by means of the intersecting vault, which was constructed on a similar system to that described for the Basilica of Maxentius (page 139). S. George's Hall, Liverpool, is of similar dimensions to the Tepidarium of Caracalla's Thermae, but with five bays instead of three. The Calidarium was roofed with a dome similar to that of the Pantheon. The Frigidarium was probably open to the sky, although as many tons of T iron were found below the surface of the bath, some suppose it to have been covered with a roof of iron joists (probably cased with bronze) and concrete. The general adornment and color treatment of the interior must have been of great richness, and in marked contrast to the exterior, indicating a further secession from Greek principles. the pavings were patterned with mosaic cubes of bright colors, either planned in geometrical patterns or with figures of athletes ; the lower parts of the walls were sheathed with many colored marbles, and the upper parts with enriched and modelled stucco bright with color ; the great columns on which rested the vault springers were either of granite. The surface of the great vaults was also richly ornamented by means of coffering, or covered with bold figures, decorations in black and white, or colored glass mosaic. 37 02-10-2018 38  02-10-2018 The Thermae of Diocletian, Rome The Thermae of Diocletian, Rome (A.D. 302) (No. 46 j), had a plan, shown in a restored condition in No. 60 K, from which it will be seen that the general distribution resembled the Baths of Caracalla. The Tepidarium is 200 feet long by 80 feet wide and 90 feet high, and is covered with quadripartite vaulting of tufa concrete, springing from eight monolithic columns of Egyptian granite, 50 feet high and 5 feet in diameter, having Composite and Corinthian capitals of white marble each supporting a portion of highly ornamental entablature. This Tepidarium was converted by Michael Angelo, in A.D. 1561, into the Church of S. M. degli Angeli, and in 1740 a projecting choir was formed on one side by Vanvitelli, who thus converted the nave of the church into a kind of transept. 39  02-10-2018 Theatres and Amphitheatres The design of Greek theatres was adapted to suit Roman requirements. The auditorium, instead of being rather more than a semicircle as in the Greek theatres, was here restricted to a semicircle, and consisted of tiers of seats one above the other, with wide passages and staircases communicating with the external porticos on each story. At the ground level, separating the auditorium of sloping seats from the stage, was a semicircular area which was occupied by the Senators, and which in its original circular plan in Greek theatres was occupied by the chorus. The stage thus becoming all important, was raised considerably and treated with great richness, and became connected more completely with the auditorium. Theatres were still constructed on the slope of a hill, but where the site did not allow of this they were, by means of the new art of vaulting, constructed tier upon tier of connecting corridors, in which the people might retreat in case of sudden showers. Whereas Greek theaters were carefully and strategically inserted into the natural landscape and often had dramatic views, the Roman theater was conceived as an urban architectural element, its magnificence and splendor a token of Rome’s imperial status. The slope of the seating was steeper than in Greek theaters, possibly for acoustic reasons. Initially, Roman theaters were hollowed out of a hill or slope, as at the theater at Aspendos, a Roman colony in Turkey. Over time, however, Romans viewed their theaters as regular urban structures. All of the theaters built within the city of Rome were made without the use of earthworks. Also unlike Greek theaters, the auditorium, though not roofed, was covered with awnings or velaria, which could be stretched out from tall poles to provide shelter from rain or sunlight. The buildings were usually semicircular. The stage building (scaenae frons) was usually three stories high, with the theater divided into the stage (orchestra) and the seating section (auditorium). 40  02-10-2018 The Theatre at Orange, South France The Theatre at Orange, South France (No. 34 B), held 7,000 spectators, and is an example where the auditorium is constructed and not hollowed out of the side of a hill. In diameter it is 340 feet between the inclosing walls. Staircases for access to the various levels were placed on either side of the stage, which is 203 feet wide by 45 feet deep, and enclosed by return walls at right angles to the back wall. The great wall at the back of this stage, 314 feet long by 116 feet high, is ornamented by blind arcading, and has at the summit two tiers of corbel stones, pierced with holes, through which the velarium poles were placed. It originally had a portico attached to it. 41  02-10-2018 The Theatre of Herodes Atticus, Athens The Theatre of Herodes Atticus, Athens (No. 17) (A.D. 161), is also a fine example, seating 6,000 people. It is partly hewn out of the Acropolis rock and partly constructed, the seats having a marble casing. It is held to have been roofed with cedar, but this, however, probably only applied to the stage. Pompeii had two important theatres, which in recent years have been excavated. The theatres at Taormina, on the east coast of Sicily, at Fiesole, near Florence, and Aspendus, in Asia Minor, are other examples. 42  02-10-2018 The amphitheatres are characteristic Roman buildings, being found in every important settlement, and in addition to their normal purposes were used for naval exhibitions, the water drains for flooding the arena still existing in many examples. The modern Spanish bull rings to some degree give an idea of the arrangement and uses of Roman amphitheatres. These are good exponents of the character and life of the Romans, who had greater love for mortal combats, which were considered to be a good training for a nation of warriors, than for the tame mimicry of the stage. The Flavian Amphitheatre, (The Colosseum), Rome The Flavian Amphitheatre, (The Colosseum), Rome (Nos. 62 and 63), commenced by Vespasian in A.D. 70, and completed (with the exception of the upper story) by Domitian in A.D. 82, is the most important example. In plan it is a type of all the examples, consisting of a vast ellipse 620 feet by 513 feet, having externally eighty openings on each story, those on the ground floor forming entrances, by means of which the various tiers of seats are reached. The arena proper is an oval 287 feet by 180 feet, surrounded by a wall 15 feet high. The seats, in solid stone, rise up from the arena, having underneath them corridors and staircases. The dens for the wild beasts were immediately under the lowest tiers of seats, and consequently opened on to the arena, as at Verona (No. 64). The auditorium has four ranges of seats, the two lower forming the grand tiers, the third separated from the second by a wall, and the top range under the peristyle forming the later addition. Access to the various seats is from the eighty entrances by means of staircases placed between the radiating walls and by corridors, placed at intervals as shown. The radiating walls were cleverly constructed, concrete being used where least weight, tufa stone where more weight, and travertine stone where the heaviest pressures had to be supported (No. 62 B). The masonry was laid without mortar, and the construction is strong and solid, Joeing of an engineering character. The system is one of concrete vaults resting on walls of the same material, 2 feet 3 inches thick, faced with travertine stone, 4 feet thick, and having an internal lining of 9 inches of brickwork, making 7 jfeet in total thickness. The supports have been calculated at one-sixth of the whole area of the building. 43  02-10-2018 The external facade is divided into four stories. The three lower ones have their walls pierced with arches, and are ornamented with half columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, the two latter being on pedestals. The upper story has Corinthian pilasters, and the height to the top of this order is 157 feet. Between the pilasters are the corbels used to support the masts of the velarium. In criticizing the general architectural character of this wonderful building (No. 63), points worthy of notice are : i. The multiplicity of its parts, viz., three tiers of apparently countless arcades encircling the exterior, divided and united by three tiers of orders, ii. The grand sweeping lines of the unbroken entablatures which entirely surround the building. iii. The purely decorative use of the Classic orders of architecture which being superimposed are in strong contrast to the Grecian method of single orders, iv. The thick piers behind the orders, connected by eighty arches and supporting the weight of the structure. The proportions of the attached columns on the fa9ade, which all have the same lower diameter are unusual : The Tuscan column is about 9^ diameters high and the Ionic and Corinthian about 8| diameters. The Colosseum was used as a stone quarry by the builders ol later times, materials being taken from it for the construction of many Renaissance buildings. 44  02-10-2018 Roman Orders Composite Order The composite order is a mixed order, combining the volutes of the Ionic order capital with the acanthus leaves of the Corinthian order. Height is 10 times the diameter. Circular shaft has 24 flutes separated by fillets. 45  02-10-2018 Tuscan Order The Tuscan order is in effect a simplified Doric order, with un-fluted columns and a simpler entablature with no triglyphs. The order is named after Tuscany in Italy. The column is 7 times the diameter in height. Shaft is unfluted. 46 02-10-2018 47  02-10-2018 Circus The plan of a Roman Circus was an adaptation of a Greek stadium, but, however, was used for chariot or horse races, while the Greek stadium was principally used for foot races and athletic sports. The Circus Maxentius The Circus Maxentius (No. 60 c) near Rome, also known as the Circus of Romulus, was built by Maxentius in A.D. 311. Although only part of it now remains, it is the most perfect example of a Roman Circus existing. It consisted of a long open circular-ended arena with a "spina" along its axis. Surrounding this were rows of marble seats supported by raking vaults and an external wall of concrete faced with "opus mixtum". At one end were the " carceres “ or stalls for horses and chariots, with a central entrance for processions and two side entrances, and at the semicircular end was the “ porta triumphalis." 48 02-10-2018 49  02-10-2018 TRIUMPHAL ARCHES AND PILLARS OF VICTORY These were erected to emperors or generals in honour of their victories. They consisted either of a single arch or of a central arch with a smaller one on either side. These rest on an impost, and have Corinthian or Composite columns on either side, and were adorned with architectural enrichments, statuary, and bas-reliefs relating to campaigns. An attic or surmounting mass of stonework was placed above, having a dedicatory inscription. (a.) The single-arched type. The Arch of Titus, Rome (A.D. 81) (Nos. 47, 49, 69 A, c), commemorates the capture of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. On each side of the arch are semi-engaged columns of the Composite order, being the earliest known examples, and three-quarter columns occur at the angles. The archway has its soffit ornamented with deep coffers, in the centre of which is a relief of the apotheosis of Titus. The inner jambs have reliefs of the emperor in a triumphal car, being crowned by victory, on the one side, and the spoils taken from the Temple at Jerusalem on the other. The central keystones project considerably in order to support the main architrave, and are richly carved, as shown in No. 67 B. 50  02-10-2018 (b.) The three-arched type. The Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome (A.D. 204) (Nos. 47, 57, 65, 66 and 70), built to commemorate Parthian victories, has detached Composite columns resting on pedestals. A description is given on each of the illustrations Nos. 57 and 65. The Arch of Constantine, Rome (A.D. 312) (No. 47), was built in honour of Constantine's victory over Maxentius, and is one of the best proportioned examples. It has detached Corinthian columns supporting an entablature, which returns round each column, and above the attic were originally a quadriga, horses, and statues. The Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome 51  02-10-2018 The Arch of Constantine, Rome Pillars of victory Pillars of victory, or memorial columns, were sometimes erected to record the triumphs of victorious generals. Trajan's Column (No. 58 B, 60 j, L), was erected 'in connection with his Basilica and stood in an open court with galleries around at different levels, from which the bas-reliefs on its shaft could be viewed. The column, of the Roman Doric order, stands on a pedestal 1 6 feet 8 inches square, and 18 feet high, ornamented with sculptured trophies on three sides, and having a doorway on the fourth. The column is 12 feet in diameter at the base and is provided with an internal spiral staircase of marble, lighted by small openings. Its total height is 147 feet. The sculptures, numbering over 2,500 human figures, besides animals, and carved on a spiral band over 800 feet long and about 3 feet 6 inches deep, were probably intended to represent the unwinding of a scroll of parchment illustrating incidents of Trajan's war with the Dacians. 52  02-10-2018 Rostral columns, a type of memorial which, in the time of the emperors, was numerous, were erected to celebrate naval victories. Rostra, or prows of ships captured after a naval victory, were used in their ornamentation (No. 69 H), and a recital of the deeds which led to their erection was carved upon them. 53 02-10-2018 54  02-10-2018 Tombs The Romans either buried or cremated their dead, both sarcophagi (No. 69 M) and urns being sometimes found in the same tomb chamber. The bodies of the emperors during the first three centuries were usually burnt on magnificent pyres, from which an eagle was set free, symbolizing the escaping soul of the dead emperor. In the second century A.D. the practice of cremation became less usual ; the richer classes embalmed their dead and placed them in massive and costly sarcophagi instead of the smaller receptacle for ashes. There are five varieties of Roman tombs, as indicated on No. 52 : (a.) Columbaria. These were placed in subterranean vaults or caves, which are now known as catacombs, and have rows of niches in the walls resembling pigeon-holes hence the name. Each niche was reserved for a vase containing the ashes of the deceased, with the name inscribed thereon. Sarcophagi were also placed in these tomb-chambers, some of which in addition had " loculi “ or recesses for corpses, as in the Tomb of the Gens Cornelia,, Rome. (b.) Monumental tombs consisted of tower-shaped blocks, square or circular, resting on a quadrangular structure and crowned with a pyramidal roof. These may be survivals of the prehistoric tumulus of earth with its base strengthened by a ring of stones. (c.) Pyramid tombs, probably due to the introduction of Egyptian ideas, were also adopted, as in the Pyramid of Cestius (B.C. 62-12), which is formed of concrete faced with white marble, and has an internal tomb-chamber, the vault and walls being decorated with figure paintings. (d.) Smaller tombs, as isolated monuments, were often erected along the sides of roads leading from cities, as at Rome and in the Street of Tombs, Pompeii. These often have subterranean tomb-chambers for sarcophagi with niches for cinerary urns, and the walls and vaults were ornamented with colored reliefs in stucco, as in the Tomb of the Pancratii. Above the ground the tomb resembled a small temple, often with a prostyle portico, and the upper chamber contained portraits or statues of deities and served as mortuary chapels. (e.) Eastern tombs. The districts of Palmyra, Jerusalem and Petra in Syria ; Caria in Asia Minor, and Algeria and Cyrene in Africa possess many examples, some rock-cut, and some structural. Aqueducts The aqueducts, although more of an engineering than architectural character, fulfilling a utilitarian purpose only, formed by their size and proportion striking features of the Roman landscape. Throughout the Empire remains are to be seen showing the importance put by the Romans upon an adequate water supply to their cities. Rome had to be especially well supplied owing to the inferiority of the local service and the large quantity required for the reservoirs, great thermae and public fountains, to say nothing of the domestic supply for its large population. The Romans were acquainted with the simple hydraulic law that water will rise to its own level in pipes, and the upper rooms of their houses were supplied by “ rising mains “ in the same way as modern buildings. Owing, however, to the fact that pipes had then to be made of weak and costly lead or bronze (cheap and strong cast-iron pipes not being in use), it was found to be more economical by the use of slave labour to construct aqueducts of stone, or concrete faced with brick, having almost level water channels, above or below ground (Vitruvius recommends a fall of 6 inches to every 100 feet), on immense arches above ground, a system which even in modern times has been followed in the Croton Aqueduct which supplies New York City. The principle of all the examples is similar. A smooth channel (specus) lined with a hard cement, is carried on arches, often in several tiers and sometimes of immense height (say 100 feet), conveying the water from the high ground, across valleys, to the city reservoirs. Many of them follow a circuitous course in order to prevent the slope of the channel being too steep when the source of the water was high above the required level of distribution in Rome. 55  02-10-2018 The Aqua Marcia (B.C. 144) and the Aqua Claudia (A.D. 38) still supply water to Rome. The " Anio Novus “ (A.D. 38), sixty-two miles in length, entered the city on arches above those of the Aqua Claudia. The Pont-du-Gard, near Nimes, in France (B.C. ig)(Nos. 60 A, B and 61), is the finest existing example. It forms part of an aqueduct twenty-five miles long, bringing water from the neighbourhood of Uzes. It is about 900 feet long, and is formed of three tiers of arches crossing a valley 180 feet above the River Gard. On the two lower tiers the central arch is the widest, and the others vary in width. On the uppermost tier there are thirty five arches having 14 feet span, supporting the water-channel. The masonry is laid dry without mortar and, as will be seen on No. 61, some of the arch voussoirs of the intermediate tier projected to carry the temporary centering. 56  02-10-2018 Anio Novus The Pont-du- Gard, near Nimes 57  02-10-2018 Bridges The chief characteristics of Roman bridges were solidity and simplicity, with a view to their withstanding the ravages of time and the elements. The roadway was generally kept level throughout. The Bridge at Rimini is the best preserved in Italy and has five arches. There are examples of two types of Roman bridges in Spain which are equally impressive, (a.) The many-arched type, as exemplified in the extreme length of the bridges at Cordova and Alcantara, (b.) The single-arched type, of which the romantic sweepT of the bridge at Toledo, spanning the rocky valley of the Tagus, is the best example. Bridge at Rimini 58  02-10-2018 Palaces The chief apartments in these palaces were : The Tablinum or Throne-room ; the Basilica, or hall for administering justice; the Peristylium, a square garden surrounded by a colonnade; the Triclinium, or banqueting hall ; the Lararium, or apartment for statues of the household gods ; and the Nymphaeum. Besides these there were many minor chambers of service, whose uses cannot now be ascertained. The disposition of the buildings was governed by axial lines producing magnificent vistas. Irregular spaces, caused by additions being made from time to time, were rendered symmetrical by the use of hemicycles and other devices, disguising the different angles of the buildings in relation to each other, a method frequently used by modern architects. 59  02-10-2018 The Palace of Diocletian, Spalato, The Palace of Diocletian, Spalato, in Dalmatia (No. 59) (A.D. 300), is another famous example, which formed the greater part of the mediaeval town of Spalato, and has thus been called a city in a house. The original plan of the palace was approximately a rectangle, occupying an area of 9.5 acres. There was a square tower at each angle, and in the centre of each of the north, east and west sides was a gateway flanked by octagonal towers, between which and those at the angles were subsidiary towers. These gateways formed entrances to porticoed avenues 36 feet wide, which, meeting in the centre, gave the palace the character of a Roman camp. On each of the facades, between the towers, were rich entrance gateways; the "golden" on the north, the "iron " on the west, and the " brazen " on the east, ending these main avenues, which divided the in closed area into four parts, each assigned to a particular purpose. The two northern portions were probably for the guests and principal officers of the household ; while the whole of the southern portion was devoted to the palace, including two temples, that of Jupiter and the baths. A circular vestibule, with a front portico in antis, formed an entrance to a suite of nine chambers overlooking the sea ; here were placed the private apartments and baths of the emperor, the finest being the portico, 524 feet by 24 feet, on the southern sea front. This served as a connecting gallery, and was probably filled with works of art (cf. Elizabethan gallery, page 555). The columns to the upper portion were detached and rested on carved corbels, a feature also seen in the golden gateway. Lining the inclosing walls of the whole area, on three sides, internally, were the cells that lodged the slaves and soldiers of the imperial retinue. The octagonal temple, and the more lofty halls of the palace proper, being visible above the inclosing walls in distant views by land and sea, were impressive features of the group. The architectural character is somewhat debased in style, broken and curved pediments with decadent detail being employed. The palace has a value, however, as a transitional example, for the entablature of the peristyle is formed as an arch, thus losing its constructive significance, and in the northern gateway arches rest directly on capitals without the intervention of an entablature, being an early example of a principle carried to its logical conclusion in the Romanesque and Gothic styles. 60  02-10-2018 Dwellings These may be classified under a) The domus, or private house ; b) The villa, or country house ; and c) The insitla, or manystoried tenement. They each possessed an atrium, forming the more public portion of the building, and a peristyle beyond, forming the centre of the family apartments. 61  02-10-2018 The streets of Pompeii were narrow (many only 8, 12, or 15 feet), the widest being 23 feet 6 inches, with a roadway 13 feet 6 inches and paths 5 feet wide. The houses had plain fronts to the street, the frontage_on_ either side of the entrance passage beingL-4^fc-oft asjshl2pr~~The absence oF windows on the fronts is explained by some as being due to a lack of glass, in which case openings towards the street would have rendered privacy impossible. The rooms wereji^hted by orjenings giving on to internal courts already mentioned, as are Eastern houses to this day, and the inns of France and England in former days. The Pompeian houses are_ mostly one story in height, but stairs and traces of upper floors exist. Such upper stones were probably of wood, but as a decree was passed in the time of Augustus limiting the height of houses in Rome to 75 feet, brick or masonry buildings must have been largely erected. The openings were small, the light being strong in the sunny climate of Italy. The House of Pansa The House of Pansa (No. 65, A, B) may be taken as a good type of domus or ordinary private house. It was surrounded by streets on three sides, the garden occupying the fourth, and, besides the house proper, consisted of shops, bakeries, and three smaller houses. A prothyrum, or entrance passage, led direct from the street entrance to the atrium, which served as the public waiting-room for retainers and clients, and from which the more private portions of the house were shut off. The atrium was open to the sky in the centre, with a " lean-to “ or sloping roof supported by brackets round all four sides. The impluvium, or "water cistern," for receiving the rain-water from these roofs, was sunk in the centre of the pavement, while round were grouped the front rooms, probably used by servants or guests, or as semi-public rooms, e.g.) libraries, each receiving sufficient light through the door openings. An open saloon, or tablinum, with “ fauces," or narrow passages, led to the peristyle, or inner court, often the garden of the house ; and around were grouped the cubiculae or bedrooms, the triclinium, or dining-room (summer and winter), with different aspects, the oacus, or reception room, and the alae, or recesses, for conversation. The dining-rooms were fitted with three couches each for three people to recline upon, as nine was the recognized number for a Roman feast. The peristyle was the centre of the private part of the house, corresponding to the hall of Elizabethan times, and it usually had a small shrine or altar (Nos. 68 G, 69 E). The walls and floors were richly decorated with mosaics and paintings. The kitchen and pantry are in the side of the peristyle, furthest from the entrance. 62 02-10-2018 63  02-10-2018 Fountains Fountains, both public and private, have always been one of the most striking features of both ancient and modern Rome on account of their graceful designs, rich material, and the soothing effect in a hot and low-lying city of the clear water sparkling in the sun. The public fountains were exceedingly /numerous, amounting to many hundreds, either as large basing of water (locus) or as spouting jets (salientes), or the two combined and ornamented with marble columns and statues. Private fountains existed in great numbers, mainly in the courts and gardens of the houses, and exhibit much variety. of design. They were of colored marbles and porphyries, often decorated with bronze statuettes. In some the water issued in jets from fishes, shells, or other objects, sometimes supported by a figure of a nymph. In others, wall niches lined with glass and mosaics were provided with lions' heads, from which issued the water, as have been found at Pompeii. 64