RGST 156EE Study Guide PDF

MT1 1.​ Why (in general) is plastics recycling problematic? What are single-use plastics? What are the two kinds of plastic (by #) most likely to be recycled? Why will PET bottles not always be recycled as PET bottles? Downcycling. Recycled vs. recyclable. Recycled vs recovered....

MT1 1.​ Why (in general) is plastics recycling problematic? What are single-use plastics? What are the two kinds of plastic (by #) most likely to be recycled? Why will PET bottles not always be recycled as PET bottles? Downcycling. Recycled vs. recyclable. Recycled vs recovered. a.​ Recycling bins don't actually take plastic to recycling facilities. Usually never actually recycled b.​ Plastics that can only be used once and then thrown away c.​ PETE and HDPE d.​ a lack of efficient recycling infrastructure and collection systems e.​ To recycle something into a product that is not as good as the original product f.​ Recycled: potentially came from a recyclable product g.​ Recyclable: able to be recycled into a new product h.​ Recovery: turns waste into something useful 2.​ What is the tragedy of the commons? How does it tend to create incentives to degrade the commons? (What is the classic solution to the historical TOC? Why is it supposed to work?) a.​ Land that we all have access to is destroyed because people have little regard since they bear a microscopic amount of the burden, so they use it unethically b.​ See A c.​ The historical solution classically has been the concept of private property 3.​ How are our oceans a global commons? a.​ They are not owned privately or by any government, and we all have the ability to dump into it, and we all feel the effects of it 4.​ What is free riding? a.​ Self explanatory 5.​ What does it mean to say that values are incommensurate? a.​ Two values do not have a common standard or cannot be compared to each other in a certain way 6.​ Intrinsic vs. instrumental value. a.​ Intrinsic is something has value in of itself, where instrumental is its value is based on something it does 7.​ Contrast anthropocentric, ecocentric, and sentiocentric (animal welfare) approaches. (These will all be covered in much more detail) a.​ Human value is the most important b.​ Nature has value in of itself c.​ Any living thing (such as animals) have the same value as humans 8.​ What is the virtue/policy debate? a.​ How we should include high moral standards in policy making in regards to environmental efforts 9.​ Greenwashing a.​ Companies acting as if they are actually contributing to climate efforts which deters people from the actual environmental issues 10.​What is utilitarianism? What are the standard objections / problems with it? (We will elaborate some of over the next few weeks) a.​ The belief that we should pursue things that promote the most amount of pleasure and the least amount of pain b.​ This is an entirely subjective ideaology and in the environment it often takes an anthropocentric and economic turn. c.​ Also, it doesnt value intrinsic value 11.​The forest service is in what government department? Contrast with National parks. How is the US Forest Service (now the USDA FS) criticized for subsidizing overharvesting? Roughly, what is the multiple-use act? a.​ Department of agriculture b.​ Forest service: resources. National parks: preserving natural and historic resources c.​ USFS retains revenue from logging - Incentive to over-harvest d.​ This law authorizes and directs the Secretary of Agriculture to develop and administer the renewable resources of timber, range, water, recreation and wildlife on the national forests for multiple use and sustained yield of the products and services. 12.​What is Gifford Pinchot's view of forest management? (Contrast with John Muir). a.​ For Muir, nature was God, best preserved far from the degrading touch of man. For Pinchot, nature was a resource that ought to be sustainably shared among the most people possible 13.​Preservationism. Conservationism. Quasi-market solutions. Use the case of Mineral King Valley to illustrate the case for O'Toole's quasi-market proposals. How is the market system supposed to be more "democratic"? How is this supposed to reduce harvesting? Explain how this would give Americans all the lumber, hiking, fishing etc that they want. a.​ Conservation is generally associated with the protection of natural resources, while preservation is associated with the protection of buildings, objects, and landscapes b.​ After years of legal battles between pro-development and preservationist groups, the Mineral King Valley was annexed into Sequoia National Park in 1978 by an act of Congress. That legislation effectively stopped the plan to ever develop the area into a ski resort. c.​ Quasi Market proposals: development satisfies more people, and is thus more democratic than preserving the forest so we should build the ski resort d.​ There is incentive to preserve land so that it is more desirable on the market e.​ Sell trees for profit/at market value: – More expensive = less logging Sell permits for other uses at the market rate – Hiking, camping, fishing For those  who want it The relative importance to people is determined by their willingness to spend – The intensity of their preferences 14.​How is preservationism a utilitarian theory? How are free-market systems a different form of utilitarian theory? (= Contrast Pinchot with O'Toole). a.​ Pinchot: wise resource management to ensure that natural resources were used sustainably for human benefit. His utilitarian approach centered on long-term resource management that would provide benefits to society, not just in the present but also for future generations. b.​ O’toole: emphasizes the belief that markets, rather than government regulations, are the best mechanism to manage natural resources and promote environmental sustainability. It argues that individual property rights, market incentives, and voluntary transactions can lead to outcomes that maximize societal welfare. 15.​We didn't study the various concepts of wilderness, but why is "wilderness" considered (by many) to be a social construct? What are several of the criticisms we noted of the romantic conception of wilderness? a.​ There are many interpretations of wilderness, but it is defined by a community of life not affected by man, however most forests are occupied by people and used by people. 16.​Explain internal and external costs. Restate Hardin's concern about the tragedy of the commons — and private property — in the language of internal and external costs. a.​ In a commons (a shared resource like a pasture, fishery, or atmosphere), individuals have an incentive to maximize their personal gain by using as much of the resource as possible. This behavior leads to the overuse and depletion of the resource because each individual only takes into account their own internal costs (the costs they directly bear for using the resource) while externalizing the costs imposed on others. 17.​How does Baxter treat external costs (like pollution)? Explain optimal pollution. Why not let public health experts decide the policy? Why is externalizing costs supposed to be good? Explain the economic account of our values. How are our values measured? Connect to utilitarianism. a.​ On a solely anthropogenic basis b.​ He believes that proper balance between competing human interests will in turn create an optimal level of pollution. c.​ They tend to be wasteful and biased by their profession d.​ Externalizing costs is supposed to spur economic growth e.​ Our values are measured by our desire to pay for something. f.​ Connecting to util, how strongly our desire is dictates the utility of certain environmental decisions 18.​The Clean Water Act (Only to the extent that we studied it, don't worry about details): Is EPA (or FDA) allowed to use C/B analysis in determining if a substance harmful? How  does C/B analysis come into determining acceptable levels of toxic substances? (Why did they arrive at 10mg/L as "safe"? (or acceptable risk). a.​ Yes, the EPA uses cost benefit analysis to determine the optimal level of certain substances in nature b.​ C/B compares the amount of harm caused by the pollution compared to the benefit of the use of the toxic substance. c.​ They determine the acceptable amount by conducting research and determining a level that in one area is not dangerous enough to stop polluting. 19.​Explain some of Mark Sagoff’s critiques of the cost-benefit analysis, applying to Baxter. What is “the cult of microeconomics”? What values are "baked into" the C/B analysis? Why does he claim that values cannot be reduced to desires/preferences? How does the cost-benefit analysis treat values? Why? Again, apply to the goal of giving Americans all the things they want? a.​ CBA often reduces values to mere preferences or desires, ignoring the deeper ethical implications of those values. b.​ an overreliance on microeconomic principles to guide policy, emphasizing individual preferences and market efficiency at the expense of broader social and ethical values. c.​ CBA inherently includes the prioritization of individual preferences over collective welfare. As well as anthropocentrism d.​ tends to promote a consumer-driven approach, where economic activities are justified based on their ability to fulfill individual desires. Ignores public welfare and long term protection of the environment 20.​What is Sagoff's point that the choice of measuring tool often determines the results you get. Apply to microeconomic analysis of values. (A bit redundant): How does using consumer preference as the tool make us look like we don't care about, say, Tongass Nat'l Forest? a.​ When we rely on consumer preferences as a measuring tool, we often focus on what individuals are willing to pay for certain goods or services. This approach tends to emphasize market-driven values, potentially sidelining broader ethical or environmental concerns. 21.​Kantian ethics. (Important). What is dignity? What is respect for persons? Kant and environment. Apply to external costs. Apply to environmental justice. Contrast Kant’s view of the value of human life with the utilitarian view (for example as found in Lawrence Summers).Use TRAIN and TRAIN BRIDGE (or HOSPITAL) to contrast with utilitarian ethics. Objections to Kantian ethics. a.​ dignity is the intrinsic worth of every individual b.​ Respecting persons means treating individuals as ends in themselves, rather than as means to an end  c.​ Our treatment of the environment reflects our respect for people. For example, if pollution harms people, we have a moral obligation to mitigate that harm because it disrespects their dignity d.​ the economic benefits of pollution might justify its existence, implying that human life can be valued based on cost-benefit analysis e.​ Imagine a train is heading towards five people tied to the tracks. A utilitarian approach would advocate pulling a lever to divert the train onto another track, killing one person instead of five, as it maximizes overall happiness. In a variation, if you could push one person off a bridge to stop the train, a utilitarian might support this as a means to save more lives. In contrast, a Kantian would reject this action, asserting that it is morally wrong to use someone as a means to an end, regardless of the outcome. f.​ Rigidity: Critics argue that Kantian ethics can be overly rigid, lacking the flexibility to account for complex moral dilemmas where exceptions might be justified. Application to Non-Human Entities: Some argue that Kantian ethics struggles to account for moral obligations towards non-human entities or the environment, as it primarily focuses on human dignity. 22.​What is environmental justice (EJ)? What is a LULU? Superfunds. NIMBYism. Give examples. How does pollution impact the poor? Why does it just make good economic sense to treat the lives of poor people as less important than others? How is this measured? Why are people of color more heavily impacted than poor whites? What is institutional racism?). a.​ framework that seeks to address the disproportionate environmental burdens faced by marginalized communities, particularly low-income and communities of color. b.​ locally Unwanted Land Use c.​ Super Funds are federal programs established to clean up sites contaminated by hazardous substance that are donated into by large companies involved in the pollution to account for their presumed polluting d.​ Not In My Back Yard) refers to the phenomenon where people oppose the development of undesirable projects near their homes, while often supporting them in principle. e.​ Location: Low-income neighborhoods are often situated near industrial sites, highways, or waste facilities, exposing residents to higher levels of pollution. Limited Resources: Poor communities may lack the resources to address pollution, such as access to healthcare or legal support. f.​ evaluating the cost-effectiveness of environmental regulations or the "willingness to pay" for environmental improvements, which can marginalize the needs of poorer communities. g.​ Historical Discrimination: Systemic racism has historically relegated communities of color to less desirable locations with higher exposure to  pollutants. Political Disempowerment: Communities of color may have less political clout, making it easier for harmful facilities to be sited nearby. 23.​What is the one area of business that is exempt to US child labor laws? (Did we cover this?) 24.​Bullard concludes that race — and not just poverty — is a leading factor in EJ. Why? (Why dump on people of color?) a.​ Institutional Racism: Environmental policies and practices, either intentionally or through neglect, have failed to protect communities of color to the same extent as white communities. the legacy of racial segregation and discriminatory practices has placed communities of color in areas more vulnerable to environmental hazards. 25.​Explain EJ in terms of external costs. Connect to the concept of optimal pollution Connect to c/b analysis. Connect to farming (nitrates, pesticides) a.​ decision-makers are not from the communities most affected by pollution. If the external costs are disproportionately borne by disadvantaged groups (e.g., farming communities exposed to pesticides or urban communities near industrial facilities), the "optimal" level of pollution may actually reflect systemic inequality rather than a fair balance of costs and benefits. The use of nitrates and pesticides the benefits larger agribusinesses and wealthier farmers, while the health and environmental costs are shifted onto nearby vulnerable populations 26.​Mossville. At least according to the sources we read, why is this happening? Connect to PVC piping. Connect to all three American idols (above). a.​ Mossville, a historically Black community, has been surrounded by dozens of petrochemical plants, many of which are involved in the production of PVC. Residents of Mossville have long suffered from environmental contamination, including toxic emissions from these plants that have polluted the air, soil, and water. b.​ the "three American idols" of liberty, property, and enterprise, have historically been used to justify the exploitation of vulnerable populations in the name of economic progress, and were used in Mossville to justify the degradation of the city and the forcing out of its people 27.​Why is climate change a concern of environmental justice? Why is it a tragedy of the commons? a.​ Climate change is an environmental justice issue because its impacts are distributed unevenly across the globe, and the people least responsible for contributing to it tend to suffer the most. b.​ Earth's atmosphere and climate are "commons" — shared resources that everyone depends on, but no single individual or nation fully owns or manages. MT2 1.​ Animal Welfare Theory (Sentiocentrism) a.​ The natural environment is important because of its value for people AND other sentient creatures. Habitat value 2.​ Compare/contrast Singer, Regan and Warren in how they claim that (some) nonhuman animals "count." Which one believes in animal rights (like the right to life)? Why doesn't Singer believe in animal rights? a.​ Singer: The capacity to feel pleasure and pain i.​ utilitarianism b.​ Regan: a creature has inherent value when it cares about its own existence i.​ Animals would be considered moral patients ii.​ Consciousness, complex emotions, pain and pleasure, self concept, communication, sense of time c.​ Warren: how much it meets the degrees of personhood i.​ Consciousness, sentience, concept of self, communication, reasoning, self motivated activity ii.​ There is a reason why we treat certain animals with greater respect than others d.​ Regan believes in animal rights because they are moral patients and thus have dignity and intrinsic value, so killing them is wrong e.​ Singer believes in utilitarianism, where the weight of the pleasure or pain of anything (including animals) can be weighed against each other to produce the best outcome. This can mean animals die to achieve overall best utilitarian result. 1.​ Singer. Why is speciesism tantamount to racism (of the sort we see in genocide)? Equality. Suffering. For Singer, when does a creature's interests count? When not? (What is his criterion for having your interests count. Why?). What about loftier criteria like rationality? The argument from non-paradigm humans (This is also called "the argument from marginal cases" in some of the secondary readings). Objection that Singer cannot adequately handle the distinction between an ape and a prawn. a.​ Everyone deserves equality and no one. Things are wrong when they discount one’s interest on morally irrelevant grounds and no one should suffer on such grounds. Species is a morally irrelevant criteria. Thus we shouldn’t be partial to certain species b.​ Interests count when you can feel pain and feel pleasure c.​ They don't count when you cant feel those things d.​ Rationality as a line to draw for who counts is morally arbitrary. Ex: some dolphins are smarter than infants, but who would think a dolphin is more important than a baby e.​ Marginal cases argument shows that animals should have equal moral standing to humans based on their ability to suffer  f.​ There are important qualitative differences between higher and lower species that singers theory cannot account for 2.​ Regan. Being a subject-of-a-life. What does he mean? Criteria. Moral agents vs. moral patients. (Connect to argument from non-paradigm humans). How does his line-drawing look different from Singer's, in terms of who actually counts? a.​ When a creature cares about its own existence b.​ Criteria: consciousness, complex emotions, pain and pleasure, self concept, communication, sense of time c.​ Moral agents: has intrinsic value, can act on morality d.​ Moral patients: have intrinsic value, lack the capability to act on moral principles e.​ It is less absolute, lower species lack some of the criteria to care about their own existence (such as prawns) 3.​ Mary Anne Warren (We didn't actually read her). Recall her cluster-concept for being a person. (Really, not that different from Regan's). How does the "degrees of personhood" view have different implications for critters that Singer and Regan? How does the case of the Great Apes and Dolphins (arguably) help her case? a.​ There are qualities that show the degree of personhood which a thing has. b.​ It gives significantly less moral standing to lower mammals that aren't very human like but can suffer or cares about staying alive c.​ They greatly help her case, she shows that the degree of personhood is why we have treat higher mammals with more respect than anything with less personhood. 4.​ How is a species different from an animal (or plant), or even a group of animals? a.​ A species is the entire group of organisms that can create offspring with one another. An animal is a being within a species and a group of animals does not necessitate them being able to reproduce. 5.​ Sixth mass extinction. a.​ Human use of the planet has made the extinction rate of animals skyrocket in recent years. b.​ Habitat destruction, invasive species, pollution, peaching, overpopulation of humans, climate change (not in hippo but still) 6.​ Biodiversity. Competing ways of thinking about extinction: Animal welfare (sentiocentrism). "Charismatic megafauna" (support, criticisms). Biodiversity. Ecocentric vs biocentric approaches (I'm not sure we really covered biocentrism, which can mean different things, but ecocentrism is a label you should know). Important: The ecoservices argument. Advantages of ecoservices argument. Why, according to critics, does this way of thinking distort the value of ecosystems? a.​ Biodiversity means having healthy, functioning, and resilient ecosystems b.​ Sentiocentrism vs ecocentrism: i.​ Sentio: individual welfare of beings  ii.​ Ecological integrity and species as part of ecosystems c.​ Charismatic megafauna: Animals that have symbolic and public importance that serve as martyrs for people caring about ecological protection d.​ Biocentrism: all living and nonliving things (non-human made) matter e.​ Ecoservices: Ecosystems are important because they provide things that are incredibly economically valuable i.​ provisioning: such as food, oxygen, water etc. ii.​ Regulating: air purification, waste decomposition, climate regulation f.​ Critics say argument is over simplistic, and relies too heavily on monetary evaluation of natural resources 7.​ Ecoservices / environmental accounting. Examples of ecoservices. (Rough) estimates of the economic value of nature or ecosystems. Advantages and disadvantages of monetizing nature that we discussed. a.​ Ecoservices: Ecosystems are important because they provide things that are incredibly economically valuable i.​ provisioning: such as food, oxygen, water etc. ii.​ Regulating: air purification, waste decomposition, climate regulation b.​ The most valuable thing economically on earth is nature ($100 trillion+ yearly) c.​ Advantage: incentivises people to protect nature d.​ Critics say argument is over simplistic, and relies too heavily on monetary evaluation of natural resources, doesn’t have foresight into future implications of decisions 8.​ What is true and what is exaggerated in the threat to bees and other pollinators? Who is most in danger? a.​ What is true: bees bring pesticides into hive, next generation feels health effects, can’t pollinate based on sub lethal defects, has a huge effect on agriculture since there is a decline in ability to pollinate plants b.​ False: the species web is going to collapse without bees c.​ Most in danger: natural bees, and specialist pollinators 9.​ Holism/holistic entities. Why do many in biodiversity camp worry that animal welfare is a bad way to think about ecosystems/species/extinction? Psychological properties (sentience, etc.) vs. ecological roles. a.​ Entities that are not necessarily individually important, but play a huge role in the grand scheme of the ecosystem b.​ Animal welfare bad: it minimizes the importance of the entire ecosystem and instead focuses on individual species that meet certain moral criteria. Departs from the importance of “pollinators” to “honey bee” c.​ Sentience based value: prioritizes beings with high levels of sentience are more important morally  d.​ Ecological based value: holistic approach values species based on their ecological functions 10.​How is a species different from an individual (what I call a "critter") or a group of animals? Why is the good of the species something quite different from the good on the individual (and vice versa)? a.​ species encompasses all individuals with the ability to interbreed and produce viable offspring under natural conditions, regardless of location or appearance etc b.​ welfare of an individual typically involves health, well-being, and survival, while the welfare of a species involves long-term evolutionary, ecological, and genetic goals that extend beyond any single organism 11.​Connect to issues of pandemics. How are pandemics often anthropogenic? Microbial xenophobia. Ticks, bats, swimming pools, land use, biodiversity. a.​ Humans intrude on natural conditions that prevent diseases from spreading, causing epidemics which would never happen if not for human intervention on the barriers of ecossytems b.​ People get scared of pathogens from outside of one’s community, creating unnecessary fear based on it being foreign. c.​ Ticks: wild or untamed areas d.​ Bats: harbors for diseases e.​ Pools: (especially public) seen as gross f.​ Land use: brings humans closer to wildlife which has diseases g.​ High biodiversity allows diseases not to spread, reducing ecosystems allows for diseases to spread easier 12.​(Roughly) What is Aristotle’s virtue ethics? Connect to emotion and values. Connect to communitarian values. a.​ Virtue ethics is the idea that one’s moral standing is based on their character traits as opposed to adhering to arbitrary rules. b.​ He believes regulating emotion properly is what creates a virtuous character. c.​ Community is where virtues and vices are made. They are inextricably linked. 13.​Lynne White. Central thesis of "The Historical Roots of Our Environmental Crisis." How are Abrahamic religions supposedly tied to capitalism and conquest? a.​ These religions, especially Christianity, fostered an anthropocentric worldview that elevated humanity above nature, legitimizing the exploitation of the natural world for human benefit. 14.​Aldo Leopold. The land ethic. Ecocentrism a.​ Leopold introduced a communitarian framework that holds nature (specifically land and nature) to the same moral concern as the anthropocentric idea of community. Similar to ecocentrism, they both believe that we should act as a role  player in nature and should change our behavioral paradigm to take care of nature and land. 15.​How is the land ethic communitarian? Connect to "belonging." How is it strategically different from animal welfare? Why do Leopold, Callicott (and Sagoff) think animal welfare provides a poor environmental ethic. a.​ Land ethic reconceives ourselves as belonging to ecosystems ,we are citizens of the biotic community b.​ Land is not for our to conquer, but rather we belong to it c.​ Animal welfare values animals are individuals, land ethic values animals as species d.​ AW focuses on individual animals rather than the integrity of ecosystems or the health of entire species and habitats, which ends up causing more harm than preventing 16.​Why is hunter/prey relation symbiotic (on this view), and not evidence that nature is a great war? (Much the same question, how has Darwin been commonly misunderstood on this topic?). a.​ They are essential to the creation of the food web, evolution and adaptation, and the general welfare of the ecosystem. War implies unnatural and unbeneficial conflict. b.​ Darwin when he says survival of the fittest isn’t reducing competition to a war, but rather showing the natural progression of beings in nature 17.​What is the conqueror role? Why does it fail? a.​ The conqueror role is the idea that humans are meant to control and have domain over the land, it fails because its unethical and immoral in the LE framework, and it leads to the ignorance and destruction of ecosystems 18.​Why is the land ethic supposed to be necessary for human beings to be an evolutionary successful species? Why is this not supposed to be a "self-interest" (economic, anthropocentric) argument? Why is it an ecological argument? a.​ If we evolve to love the land and see ourselves as within the biotic community, we can live in symbiosis and have biotic rights. If we keep having domain over the land, we as a species is dysfunctional and evolutionarily problematic b.​ Argument is about whether our species is well adapted. Removes us as conquerors of the land, instills the idea that we are mere members of the ecosystem, acting economically or anthropocentrically implies we use the land as domain and regulate it to fit our needs. c.​ Ecological argument because it puts femininity in the context of the ecological world 19.​Ecological roles. Trophic levels. Biotic communities. The principle of biotic community. a.​ Parts that members of the biotic community play to make it work b.​ Trophic levels are different stages of the food chain and which animals are in each  c.​ all the living organisms in a specific area that interact and depend on one another for survival d.​ all living organisms are interconnected 20.​What does Leopold mean by a "biotic right" to exist (in an ecosystem)? How is this different from Regan's animal rights? a.​ A right for an animal to exist in an ecosystem because they belong to the biotic community of that ecosystem b.​ Regan: animals have the right to life intrinsically, not just in the context of biotic community 21.​What is the role of private property owners? Connect to Garrett Hardin and the virtue/policy debate. I tried to support this with examples of corporate-owned farms and redwood forests. a.​ Have control over land and resources but also bear an ethical duty to use stewardship practices that prevent degradation of soil, water, and biodiversity, ideally balancing economic interests with ecological health. b.​ Hardin: believed private ownership mitigates impacts of tragedy of the commons, different from owner in land ethic sense based on moral duty of land steward c.​ virtue/policy: LE advocates for people to exercise virtues in their stewardship as a member of the biotic community, contrasting with policy which creates arbitrary principles and policies for people to andhere to and implement 22.​What kinds of hunting would Leopold support (or in what circumstances)? What kinds of hunting have no place? Compare with Regan/animal welfare claims. What is the main point of Leopold's, "Thinking like a Mountain"? Connect the land ethic. a.​ Leopold supports hunting in the context of the welfare of the biotic community, if theres an overpopulation of something, or if we hunt for survival b.​ Hunting for big game or sport has no place c.​ AW believes any hunting is morally wrong d.​ to have a complete appreciation for the profound interconnectedness of the elements in the ecosystems 23.​We didn't really discuss Regan's charge of environmental fascism, but it is at least worthwhile knowing what it is. This really brings out the contrast between animal welfare and ecocentric ethics. 24.​Objection that we do not live in ecosystems. What does it mean to say we are alienated from the natural environment? Why is this an obstacle to evolving the land ethic? a.​ Every aspect of our life separates us from the natural world, we observe it from an outside perspective and not as an active member. We don't live in the forest anymore so how can land ethic be relevant to us now? b.​ How can we learn to be a member of something we have no connection to? 25.​Some stereotypes of African people. a.​ They all live in small primal communities 26.​Main causes of elephant population decline. Who are the main predators of elephants? Hunting vs. poaching. a.​ Mostly human land usage increasing, and ivory poaching. b.​ Adult elephants have no natural predators, they are only killed by human beings c.​ Poaching is the illegal trapping and killing of elephant where hunting is legal and regulated 27.​Explain the argument that (controlled) elephant hunting should be allowed. Why has elephant hunting not been the "silver bullet" — that elephant populations continue to decline in most nations with legal trophy hunting? Why does Schmidtz think in can be effective? Connect to CAMPFIRE. a.​ Ecotourism from hunting prevents poaching, empowers small communities to regulate their land, and keeps elephant population in check and able to be regulated b.​ When hunting is regulated by big government, it doesn't help the people who are stewards of the land in which people hunt, so poaching is still a thing for food and money’ c.​ Gives money to local people to help empower then and regulate elephant pops 28.​What is Schmidtz's concern that elephant hunting (or culling) is more tragic in terms of animal welfare than other cases (say, like deer hunting)? What evidence does he cite? a.​ Elephants possess higher levels of social intelligence and emotional bonds than many other animals typically subject to hunting, making the impact of hunting on their welfare substantially more severe. b.​ Cites elephant mourning behaviors and proof of long term trauma 29.​Why does Peter Singer (or Regan) think sport hunting is wrong. (I borrowed a line out of context, but it does represent Singer's view). How might a hunter respond? a.​ Singer: it sacrifices the important interest of other beings for trivial interests of ours b.​ Singer: delight in killing is a moral flaw 30.​What is the case for allowing trophy hunting? a.​ Banning hunting not effective, legalizing detours poaching, ecotourism, regulates population 31.​Explain the concern that preservationism is a "luxury." Why can't we just expect local farmers to be preservationists, perhaps persuading them with Singer's argument or some such? According to Schmidt, how do we get locals to care? (Very roughly, what is CAMPFIRE)? a.​ Most people who live in the communities can’t afford to pursue preservationist practices because they need to survive more than care about elephant population decline  b.​ We get locals to care by connecting them to the profits of preservation, incentivizing them. 32.​What is my argument that preservationism is NOT a luxury? (Schmidtz really agrees with this point). a.​ Self actualization and flourishing is a need, but comes after establishing more core needs 33.​Hierarchy of needs: (Connect to preservationism) a.​ meeting basic human needs allows for a greater focus on preservationist values 34.​Respect for cultures. (Why is this not relativism?) a.​ Respecting a culture that may not agree with our western preservationist ideologies is important (especially if it's their land) Final Section 3: Grubs 1.​ (Roughly) what is the farm bill, and what are the largest subsidies? What was the motivation (in the 70s/Earl Butts). How was it supposed to fight hunger? American wealth? How has cheap food affected wages for the working poor (Think WalMart) a.​ Bill that addresses us agriculture practices i.​ Keep food cheap for farmers and consumers ii.​ Ensure adequate food supply iii.​ Keep an essential recourse for wealth, iv.​ Having less income go to food, but wages are lower for the working poor now that food is cheaper b.​ The largest subsidy is CORN. i.​ 30% of arable land, 50% for CAFOS, 30% for ethanol 3% for edible corn ii.​ $20b in subsidies each yaer c.​ Others are wheat, cotton, rice, soybeans 2.​ How is the farm bill connected to processed foods? How has the farm bill been linked to obesity and (type-2) diabetes? Explain the argument that the farm bill subsidizes junk food. What is HFCS? While the farm bill changes slightly every 4-6 years, why is it broadly supported by both democrats and republicans in Congress? How is it related to SNAP? a.​ US subsidies encourage farmers to grow crops that are cheap and have high value such as soy and corn which are turned into processed foods b.​ And with most and the cheapest food being processed, it drastically increases the prevalence of T2D in the american populaiton c.​ High Fructose corn syrup d.​ Both sides recognize the importance of food security and economic prosperity that comes from food for farmers and lower class. Without these subsidies the US ag industry would collapse  i.​ Moreover, it is a compromise between both sides and is constantly renewed to adapt to changing attitudes e.​ Snap is a part of the legislation that makes up the farm bill, which decides how much budget Snap should get, so highly important 3.​ We saw a chart of obesity by nation. Where does the US stand? How about France and Italy? What is the point about computers and smart phones? a.​ The US has the highest obesity rate out of any developed country in the world. b.​ France/Italy are much lower in the 24 and 25 spot c.​ People argue it is because of technology making people lazier in america that we are so fat, however Italy/have phones and are much healthier 4.​ What does a natural sweetener mean? a.​ High fructose corn syrup 5.​ Why is Pollan against eating nutrients? Where does he recommend we get our nutrition, if not from nutrients? Why does he think nutritionism is as much an ideology as a science? Who benefits from this ideology. a.​ Pollan thinks the overemphasis on nutrients creates and unrealthy relationship with food where we oversimplify how nutrition works and focus on a few buzz ingredients instead of the whole food b.​ He recommends we get our nutrition from whole foods - real foods that arent processed c.​ Nutritionism is the belief that the premise of food is in identifying individual ignredients. We are not educated enough on food to understand the whole picture so this is barely backed by science. Creates binary view of good or bad food d.​ Manufacturers: can create processed foods that people think are healthy e.​ Scientists: gain funding or prestige by dying on a hill for nutrition f.​ Media: gain buzz for stories on nutrition and “the next big thing” 6.​ Where does Pollan think we should get our food? What does he mean by, "Vote with our forks?" What is the charge of elitism (the two-tiered society)? Apply this point to meat as well. a.​ We should get our foods from local farms, sustainably practiced farming that produces whole foods. Pollan thinks we should only eat foods that are cooked by humans. b.​ Regocnize the power of consumer purchasing choices, the money we spend on food directly affects agricultural practices. If we buy whole foods, the market will respond c.​ A critique of pollans idea is that it caters to the people that have the money and time to change their eating habits for better. So much easier said than done for most of the population  d.​ Same goes for meat production, the critique is sustainable and ethical meat is a luxury that only those with money and time can afford, the rest of the population would struggle to meet. 7.​ How does the farm bill also subsidized CAFOs? In addition to cruelty (animal welfare), explain some of the other environmental consequences of CAFOs. How do they affect Rivers and lakes. What is the loophole in the Clean Water Act that allows this to happen? What is the sewer system for all of these animals? a.​ CONCENTRATED ANIMAL FEEDING OPERATION b.​ The meat industry is built on the cheap feed that is corn which is subsidized by the government. As long as corn is cheap, the easier it is for factory farms to operate c.​ There are drastic environmental effects of Cafos, like air pollution from methane from cow waste, soil degradation, and biodiversity loss d.​ Cafos generate a bunch of waste that ends up being dumped in rivers and lakes. Waste is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus which create low oxygen level dead zones that kill fish and aquatic life e.​ Loophle in CWA says it is okay to dump in unconnected body of water, thus creating lagoons and polluted groundwater f.​ There is no sewage system!! 8.​ Antibiotic resistance. Why does 75% of antibiotics go to CAFOs? (Why are chickens fed arsenic?). a.​ Antibiotics protect animals from dying with disease because of how close they are packed together and how unsanitary it is. Also leads to faster growth in livestock b.​ Since there is so much livestock, it requires a huge amount antibiotics c.​ Chickens are fed arsenic as an antibiotic to grow faster 9.​ Local air pollution. Why are CAFOs major LULUs? a.​ LULU: LOCALLY UNWANTED LAND USE b.​ They have a huge odor pollution effect, smells like death for miles c.​ No one would want to live next to a cafo, use same groundwater, etc 10.​Why do CAFOs have such a high carbon footprint? a.​ Carbon emissions from manure, methan from cows, nitrous oxide from fertilizers, CO2 from deforestation 11.​Lives of workers. The charge of inhuman working conditions. Connect to external costs. a.​ 99% are migrants, 1% are prisoners, dehumanizing work with long hours that is dangerous and disease ridden. b.​ Healthcare costs from agriculture/food related problems (such as disease and injury in workers), subsidies, environmental damage (which affect workers health), cruelty to animals 12.​On a traditional farm, what do cows eat? What happens to the dung? What do cows eat in CAFOs? Where does the dung go? Why is this not used as fertilizer? (Wendell Berry's point) a.​ Trad: cows eat grass from non-arable land, and the dung is fertalized into soil. Making it a cyclical and elegant system b.​ Now, cows eat feed from mainly corn grown far from where they live, and their dung is so toxic and impractical to transport to farms that it is just dumped. Which leaves farmland with less fertility of crops and a lot of pollution on feed lots 13.​What is pink slime? Be able to find it on a label. a.​ Pink slime is LEAN FINELY TEXTURED BEEF, or the parts of an animal that would go to waste but are converted to low quality meat used in bad products b.​ Would be labed as lean finely textured beef, ground beef, can be labelled as 100% beef because of USDA rules. 14.​What is Singer's argument against eating meat? (Roughly) How does Pollan respond to the claim that this is a trivial interest? What (in the most general sense) is Pollan's response to Singer on the issue of meat? What does Aristotle mean by the telos of an animal? (You see the concept in Pollan's piece). a.​ The killing of animals for our pleasure in tasting meat is the sacrifice of the most important interest of another being for the trivial interest of us b.​ Singer trivializes the experience of eating meet, make it easy to equate such important things like sex or happiness to trivial interests. There is a natural order of food and the solution can be found from practicing it ethically and naturally c.​ Pollan advocates for concious omnivorism, where we dont completely cut out meat, but strive to eat it ethically and sustainably. d.​ Aristotle’s telos tells inherent purpose of a being. For animals it is to live in their natural way and pursue their natural instincts. Unethical farming practices restrict cows from living to their full telos 15.​One option is that we get our meat from small farms that avoid most of the problems of CAFOs. Other than price, what is the main objection to this approach? a.​ These are called “HAPPY FARMS” b.​ At our current consumption rate of meat, farming the same amount of total meat in Happy farms would require more land than the entirety of the US, so it is infeasible without reducing our consumption 16.​What are GMO? Some touted advantages? Have they led to more or less use of synthetic chemicals? Pesticides, insecticides, herbicides, fungicides. a.​ GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS b.​ Advantages are uniformity of crops, bigger yields, longer shelf life, environment resistant, fewer pesticides c.​ It started with lower use of chemicals, but as pests and herbs grew resistance to the cides they had to use different and more chemicals  d.​ Insecticides down, fungicides down, pesticides neutral, herbicides way up 17.​Why are all GMO patents owned by chemical companies? Distinguish the "science question" from the "political question." Why isn't there more independent testing of GMO for health or environmental consequences? a.​ GMO involves patenting genetic DNA of crops. b.​ Companies own them because they chemcially manufacture them, and want to have market dominance in ag industry by ownership of commodity. c.​ Science question: are they safe? d.​ Political question: who owns them, and what are the ESG effects of their use? e.​ Patents of GMO crops owned by big ag companies restrict independent studies from being conducted. Policy issue 18.​What is a Roundup-Ready crop? How does it work? Why does it sell Roundup™? How is it connected to increased use of atrazine and dicamba? a.​ A crop that is genetically modified to be resistant to the herbicide found in round up, called GLYPHOSATE. b.​ Now, farmers can spray round up herbicide on their fields without wiping out the crop they want to protect c.​ Product pairing, RR crops are now a compliment to RU, thus creating a closed loop system where farmers buy one product and treat it with another product d.​ The intense and widespread use of roundup grew rise to weeds that are hyper resistant to RU herbicide, thus farmers now need to use ATRAZINE and DICIMBA which are both highly toxic and worse than round up to treat crops 19.​What is monoculture? How do GMO relate to monoculture? What are the criticisms of monoculture that we discussed? a.​ Agricultural practice where one crop is grown repeatedly in one large area year after year b.​ Gmo crops are design to optimize large scale monoculture farming, by making them uniform, high yielding, and resistant to cides c.​ There is more chemical use than before, soil degradation, loss of biodiversity, 20.​What are some of the problems with owning (patenting) DNA? What kinds of contracts do farmers sign with GMO companies? Who is the largest seller of seed to organic farmers? a.​ Leads to big corps having monopolies over crops, forcing farmers to to comply w/ contracts. Restricts other from R&D on more sustainable crops. Ethical concerns over the ability to patent life if “it is modifed enough”. b.​ They sign COERCIVE CONTRACTS: farmers are not allowed to discuss details, cannot keep/ replant seeds, cannot plant competition, cannot sell land w/o permission, farmers have liability fro injury/illness from use of monsanto seeds c.​ MONSANTO 21.​Why does Syngenta want African nations to accept Golden Rice? (Hint: They probably don't care that much about starving children). Who now owns Syngenta? How are African nations responding to GMO. Connect to CRISPR. a.​ Syngenta would expand into a whole new market in africa that is the breadbasket of the world with extremely high potential for economic yield if given crops. b.​ Syngenta is now owned by CHEMCHINA c.​ Africa has diverse regulations on GMO’s, but it would be important to the developing nations for subsistence and also economic growth through export. d.​ Their use of CRISPR is the flagship of their response to GMO’s. An ethical, precise, and available way to modify crops that africa has been using. 22.​(Roughly) what are the legal requirements for organic? Can they use pesticides? Sewage? (How does sunlight function like a pesticide?). How is organic farming better for the soil? What are some of the criticisms of Big or Industrial Organic? How much GMO is allowed in processed organics? a.​ Generally prohibits synthetic chemicals, non gmo, no sewage sludge, crop rotation, and animal welfare b.​ They can use pesticides but only natural or approved c.​ Sunlight is a natural pesticide bc it kills pathogens and pests w UV d.​ Increased soil enrichment, microbial health, reduced erosion. e.​ Big organic underminds the original premise of organic farming which is sustainability and and health with profits. Cutting corners and using organic as a market tool. Uses monoculture practices. Cutting corners in using pesticides f.​ Zero GMOS are allowed 23.​Why do some people prefer "small, local, and responsible"? What is a CSA box? Why do many small farmers thing the organic label is tainted a.​ Supporting local farm economy (voting with our forks), freshness and quality, transparency and accountability, environmental benefits b.​ COMMUNITY SPONSORED AGRICULTURE c.​ Large scale farm operations adopt organic certification but are industrial organic, which resembles conventional problematic farming practices and use of pesticides within the rules. Corporate influence, no transparency, only uber rich corps can afford certification 24.​Labels: 100%, Organic, Made with Organic Ingredients, "A blend of organic and natural ingredients. a.​ 100%: what it says b.​ Organic made with other ingredients: 95% c.​ A blend of organic and natural ingredients: 70% 25.​What makes organic Gatorade organic? a.​ Its usda organic certification, farming industrial organic cane sugar 26.​In what way is organic better for farmworker conditions? In what way is it not? How better vis a vis climate change? (Why is agriculture so heavily implicated in climate change?) a.​ Farmworkers have reduced exposer to toxic chemicals, but not entirely. Uses safer techniques b.​ Though, pay, hours, and conditions do not improve. Increased labor now that dangerous machines arent used. Also, still exposure to natural pesticides c.​ Uses practices that dont emit as much carbon into atmosphere (compsoting, cover cropping, etc). Reduced energy use and reduction in fertilziers that release greenhouse gasses. Lower emissions from livestock 27.​What does Pollan mean by "voting with our forks"? What is the objection that we are creating a two-tiered food system? a.​ Our decisions as consumers directly affect the agricultural market, and by consuming sustainable and ethical products, we support them and punish the bad guys b.​ A critique of pollans idea is that it caters to the people that have the money and time to change their eating habits for better. So much easier said than done for most of the population 28.​What is a food desert? Where do these people get much of their everyday food? a.​ An area where people have limited access to affordable AND nutritious food b.​ Most people get their food from convenience stores, fast food restaurants, bad sources 29.​Why are school gardens an essential educational tool? Why do many schools have very bad soil? a.​ School gardens provide a experiential, hands on experience with the importance of healthy food. Engages them to think critically and independanty regarding their food decisions b.​ Schools especially in low income areas tend to be built on abandoned lots, waste sites, abandoned buildings etc since they are affordable. Thus, have really bad soil 30.​Connect food ethics with environmental justice, external costs, optimal pollution, organochlorines, animal welfare, biodiversity, and the land ethic. a.​ Industrial farming like CAFOS disproportionately affects lower income families that live in areas where these practices are happening.food ethics calls for justice in practices, which in turn calls for justice in people affected in EJ b.​ Industrial ag produces external costs like waste, pollution, smell, loss of biodiversity, health problems c.​ Food ethics challenges optimal pollution by emphasizing that it disproportionately affects lower incoem communities d.​ Organochlorines are profusely used in big ag, food ethics calls for healthier farming practices like getting rid of organochlorines  e.​ Animal welfare directly intersects with food ethic. Because the animals are our food, better standards in food ethics calls for better standards in animal life and treatment f.​ Food ethic scorns monoculture practices and harmful GMO, promoting biodiversity as an important and ethical practice that produces healtheir food g.​ Land ethic and food ethic directly intersect, LE calls for better treatment of the land that food is grown on, such as soil health, water protection. etc 31.​How is food waste connected to climate change? a.​ Generates greenhouse gasses in landfills and waste in food production 32.​Explain (roughly) Pollan's argument about "how change is going to come" in the food industry. What economic ally does he point out have a vested interest in the food movement? What are some items that went into our National Food Program in class? a.​ 1. Vote with our forks and establish or grow alternative markets b.​ 2. Find a powerful ally that has direct interest in said alternative market i.​ States have interest in reducing medical costs from bad food c.​ 3. Use power to design national policy that changes our relationship with food d.​ ????? 33.​Very roughly, what is carbon farming? a.​ The use of specific agricultural practices to store carbon in the plants, soil, ground, and keep it out of the atmosphere as an emission Part 4: Juice 1.​ Holocene, Anthropocene, carbon sink, anthropogenic a.​ Holocene: the current epoch we are living in since the last ice age b.​ Anthropocene: the name given the period of time in the world in which humans have had a substantial impact on it. c.​ Carbon sink: anything that absorbs more carbon from the atmosphere than it releases (plants, trees, etc) d.​ Anthropogenic: environmental change caused by humans directly or indirectly 2.​ What is the difference between a climate skeptic and a climate denier? Why is climate skepticism scientifically valuable? a.​ Skeptic: crucially examines climate change data, engages in back and fourth discourse that can generate valuable insights b.​ Denier: denies the overwhelming scientific consensus on climate change. c.​ Skeptics encourgace scientists to provide rigorous proof, be transparent, and indirectly show gaps in knowledge and data 3.​ What is a climate refugee? How might climate refugees enhance climate change? a.​ A person who is forced to leave their home area due to climate change issues affecting them  b.​ Increasing urbanization in large cities, land use, overburdening local recourses, social stigma from resentment which leads to poor policy decisions 4.​ What is a positive feedback loop? Note at least three proposed positive feedbacks for the atmospheric carbon. (This does not include anthropogenic feedbacks like using more AC). a.​ In this context, it is climate change issues that snowball and create more climate change issues b.​ Destruction of rainforests -> drought, fires, disease, loss of species c.​ Warming the oceans -> releases more CO2 d.​ Methane releases -> higher temperature -> melts permafrost that stores methane -> even higher temperature 5.​ The long, fat tail. a.​ The increased probability of catastrophic events happening the longer we prolong the problem. b.​ CO2 in the atmosphere creates the extended possibility for nonlinear catastrophic events happening based on how long its shelf life is 6.​ What is (Bill McKibben’)s most important number regarding climate change "Math". (The important question here is not the actual numbers, but rather their significance). a.​ 296 Gt: CO2 “carbon budget” for 1.5º goal b.​ 942 Gt: CO2 currently being extracted c.​ 2795 gigatons: the amount of known CO2 in owned sites that have permission to extract d.​ The climate goal and intentions of the fossil fuel corporations are way off. 7.​ Explain climate change in terms of environmental justice. Why do developed countries and developing countries see the problem in different ways? How do China and the U.S. fit in? Explain the conflict between the Global North and the Global South, giving the perspective of both sides? Where does China fall? Why has this furthered the trouble of coming to an international agreement? a.​ Climate change’s causes and impacts are unequally distributed based on wealth b.​ Developed countries are already in a socio economic developed position and can now raise concern. Developing countries however, see it as unfair as their industrialization now have to be minimized in order to meet climate change quotas c.​ China and US are the two most emitting countries causing climate change. However, china does our emitting for us, our consumption and emissions per capita are significantly higher. They are in an industry war and not going to stop consuming as much d.​ Global north is developed and wants emphasis on climate issues at cost of economic output of developing countries. Global south is developing and wants  the right to develop before we address climate at the cost of climate change caused through their industrialization. e.​ China is global south, because it is still developing governmentally and socially, yet is the second largest emitor f.​ As mentioned, these different priorities from the North and South have led to a lack of consensus on climate policies. 8.​ Explain climate change in terms of an (international) tragedy of the commons. a.​ The earths atmosphere and climate system are shared recourses, and developed countries with money and power pollute it incessantly at the cost of everyone on earth b.​ Focuses on individual gain instead of collective impact 9.​ What (roughly) is hydraulic fracturing? Why does it often cause small local earthquakes? a.​ FRACKING, a process used to extract underground oil and fossil fuel from underground rock formations. Drilling hole, injecting high pressure mixture, cracks rock allowing oil and gas to come out b.​ Due to the immense pressure changes and impact on rock formations, it causes small local earthquakes 10.​What are some of the water issues? Fracking fluids. What happens to spent fracking fluids (two main ways). What happens to fracking fluids in off-shore fracking? a.​ Requires a lot of water, contaminates surface and groundwater, creates fracking fluid which is bad b.​ Fracking fluids are byproducts of the process: comprising of water, sand or other proppants, and chemical additives such as benzene methanol. Super duper bad for the environment c.​ Deep well injection: storing liquid in underground wells. Or LAGOONS d.​ Either disposed into the ocean or injected into deep wells 11.​Explain the argument that fracking natural gas provides a bridge to a carbon-neutral future. What are some of the objections to this based on the fracking process? What are some objections based on market forces and the low cost of fossil fuels? a.​ Natural gas emits significantly less CO2 than coal, and we need an energy source to support our consumption before we can completely switch to renewable energy. b.​ Objections: leaks methane into the atmosphere, fracking fluid contaminates water, triggers earthquakes, noise pollution, abandoned wells 12.​How are fracking fluids disposed of? Is it true that they are dumped (legally) into the ocean? a.​ While most fluids are injected into well sites, companies can legally dumb fracking fluid into the ocean so long as it follows certain parameters 13.​How is fracking a problem of environmental justice?  a.​ Disproportionate location of sites, air/water/ground/noise pollution in said areas which are usually lower income. Benefits are not distributed to community that lives and works at sites. 14.​What is the "Halliburton Loophole?" How have environmentalists mischaracterized the exemptions? What is the connection to proprietary rights (trade secrets)? a.​ A provision in the ENERGY POLICY ACT 2005 that exempts fracking fluids from the standards of the SAFE WATER DRINKING ACT b.​ Evnironemntalists oversimpify the loophole. While fracking fluids are exempt from SWDA they fall scrutiny to many other legal standards. Also is specific to underground injection wells but not the practice of fracking itself c.​ Fracking companies can now claim the composition of their fracking fluid is a “trade secret” essential for their market competitive advantage, giving no transparency to what the harmful ingredients are in a given fluid 15.​It is very difficult to prove links between health and fracking (why?). What is the apparent link to infant birthweight? a.​ There is a complex exposure pathway that people are exposed to, from water, to air, to noise, to ground etc. Moreover, there is a lack of transparency from companies as to what chemicals and practices they are using b.​ Infants born to mothers near fracking sites are more likely to have low birthweight, disease, and conditions 16.​The legal cases about banning fracking are difficult, and have (at best) been resolved at the county level. Why is it legally problematic to just ban fracking? a.​ Difficult: land owners have the right to subsurface materials. Bans would violate property rights. b.​ National government views energy production especially through fracking as essential to the economy and would have drastic affects on energy security and whole economy if banned c.​ County can impose restrictions on public land, county tax based on pollution, etc. 17.​We are taught that science is objective in the sense of being value-neutral. Most philosophers of science see this as a naive view. Why? Where do values enter the scientific process (or the one way we discussed)? a.​ The world is silent in absense of questions we ask that form hypotheses b.​ The choice of questions we ask are value laden, they lie in our interests and what we think is important to examine c.​ Framing questions, in this regard to the effects of fracking, looking for stuff because we already dont like fracking. 18.​The industry is probably right in claiming that fracking is clean and safe. Environmentalists are probably right in claiming that it is not. How is this difference explained by how each defines "fracking"? a.​ SCOPE  b.​ Industry says fracking is safe by using narrow scope: the act of drilling is a localized short term process that has minimal effects c.​ Environmentalists have a broad scope: construction and abandoning of sites, methane leaking, fracking fluid, ground pollution, earthquakes, transportation emissions. 19.​Why are the doomsday scenarios we are given so misleading? a.​ Focus on extreme and unlikely outcomes, climate change is a slow and treatable process if we act diligently. The world is not burning 20.​When will we start emitting less than the previous year? a.​ 2024 21.​Two important ideas about funding the Global South to preserve biodiversity. a.​ ?????? 22.​What is the importance of kelp? a.​ Provides food and shelter for aquatic life, increase biodiversity and prosperous ecosystem b.​ Also, major carbon sink 23.​Three ways to use hydrogen. (Not counting fusion) a.​ Fuel cells b.​ Combustion: hydrogen and air produce water vapor c.​ Lighter than air technology (futuristic balloons/blimps)