Environmental Studies Lecture Notes #1 (Updated July 2024) PDF

1 UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND SPORT Module: Environmental Studies Lecture #1 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Planet Earth is home to many species that d...

1 UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND SPORT Module: Environmental Studies Lecture #1 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Planet Earth is home to many species that depend on its various processes and ecosystem services. However, human activities are limiting the ability of the earth to provide these services affecting not only the survival of other species but also that of humans. Awareness and understanding of the resulting challenges will enable individuals to adapt their lifestyles to create opportunities. This module is roughly divided into two parts. The first part provides information on the structure of the environment and natural processes and interactions that exist. The second part looks at how humans impact these processes and provides possible options to minimise these impacts and create a sustainable path towards development. GENERAL OBJECTIVES At the end of this module students should: 1. Understand the way natural ecosystems function; 2. Appreciate the ways in which human populations disrupt natural ecosystems and thus cause environmental problems; and 3. Propose and evaluate solutions to current environmental dilemmas. WHAT IS THE ENVIRONMENT? The environment is comprised of all the living and non-living external factors that affect an organism. WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES/ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE? Environmental studies is the interdisciplinary study of human interactions with the environment, with the aim of solving environmental problems. Environmental science is the science of understanding how the world works at the level of the natural environment, i.e. how the natural environment regenerates natural resources and how human activities are affecting this regenerative capacity. It can help us understand how the earth works, how we affect Earth’s life support systems and how we can help solve current environmental problems. Environmental scientists:  Monitor the quality of the environment;  Interpret the impacts of human activities on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems;  Develop strategies for restoring ecosystems; and  Help planners develop and construct buildings, transportation corridors and utilities.  2 NATURAL CAPITAL / NATURAL RESOURCES Capital is anything that has value to human beings. Therefore, goods and services provided by the Earth through natural processes are called natural capital. They are also called natural resources. The two main categories of natural resources are: Renewable – resources that can be replenished rapidly (hours to several decades) through natural processes as long as they are not used up faster than they are replaced. Examples include trees in forests, grasses in grasslands, wild animals, fresh surface water in lakes and streams, most groundwater, fresh air, and fertile soil. If these resources are used faster than they are replenished, they will be depleted. Non-renewable – resources that exist in a fixed amount in the earth’s crust and have the potential for renewal by geological, physical, and chemical processes taking place over hundreds of millions to billions of years. Examples include copper, aluminium, coal and oil. We classify these resources as exhaustible because we are extracting and using them at a much faster rate than they are formed. POLLUTION Pollution can be defined as an undesirable change that can adversely affect humans or other living organisms. Substances that cause this undesirable change are called pollutants. The effect of a pollutant is dependent on its persistence, which is how long a pollutant stays in air, water, soil or an organism. There are two categories of pollutants: Degradable – A potentially polluting chemical that is broken down completely or reduced to acceptable levels by natural physical, chemical, and biological processes. Non-degradable – Materials that are not broken down by natural processes. Examples include the toxic elements lead and mercury. ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS Environmental ethics is a discipline that studies moral convictions about, or commitments to, one type of behaviour over another as it relates to the environment. Environmentalism is a response to the threat to the natural environment and advocates for the implementation of solutions to environmental problems. In disputes over environmental issues there are two opposing views; human-centred (anthropocentric worldview or anthropocentrism) and earth-centred (ecocentric or ecocentrism). Anthropocentric worldview This has been the dominant worldview held by Western civilisations throughout most of its history. It embodies the assumption that all parts of the environment, i.e., air, water, soil, minerals and all plant and animal species are natural resources that must be exploited for the advantage of humans. This view also assumes that these natural resources are infinite and that the value of other species and parts of nature is based on how useful they are to us. The history of the development of Western civilisations has consequently been synonymous with deforestation, slaughter of wild animals, mining of minerals and discarding of wastes with little regard for the long-term impact on the earth or future generations.  3 Ecocentric worldview This embodies the view that we have an ethical responsibility to avoid causing the premature extinction of species through our activities. This view assumes that the Earth’s resources are finite. Consequently, these resources will be limited by the regenerative capacities of the natural environment and will be provided only to the extent that the natural environment is protected and maintained. Our survival therefore depends on suitable protection and stewardship of the environment. ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY Environmental sustainability is defined as the environment’s ability to function indefinitely. This is important because we depend on natural resources for our survival. If we deplete resources and pollute the environment we endanger the welfare of future generations. The Earth functions as one global ecosystem therefore everyone has a role to play in ensuring a sustainable future. Current unsustainable practices include:  Human population growth which is the root cause of other unsustainable practices such as:  The unchecked use of non-renewable resources;  Renewable resources being used faster than nature can replenish them and;  The pollution of the environment COVID 19 LOCKDOWN ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECT The COVID-19 lockdown helped the environment to bounce back and resulted in the following changes:  Improved water quality due to decreased sewage and industrial effluents in rivers.  Reduced noise level due to reduced transportation and industrial activity.  Improved air quality due to reduced transportation and industrial activity.  Wild life reclaimed the land. The lockdown highlighted the negative impact of human activity and the need for sustainable development. Source: Arora, Bhaukhandi and Mishra (2020) SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT This is defined as development that encourages forms of economic growth that meet the basic needs of the current generations of humans and other species without preventing future generations of humans and other species from meeting their basic needs. It discourages environmentally harmful and unsustainable forms of economic growth. At the first United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development held in September 2002 world leaders from 170 countries, including Jamaica, adopted the United Nations Millennium Declaration committing their nations to reduce extreme poverty. Seven millennium goals were developed with targets to be achieved by 2015. Goal 7 addressed environmental sustainability. Some targets were not achieved and on September 25, 2015 the 193 member states of the United Nations adopted 17 sustainable development goals with 169 targets to be achieved over 15 years. These build on the Millennium Development Goals aiming to reach the most vulnerable and transform our world to a sustainable society (United Nations (n.d.). GREEN ECONOMY The Green Economy is a strategy for achieving sustainable development. It is one that results in improved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities.  4 Common green economy principles:  Creates jobs paying a fair income and guaranteeing safe working conditions  Is resource and energy efficient  Protects biodiversity and ecosystems  Improves governance and the rule of law.  Is inclusive, democratic, participatory, accountable, transparent and stable. In 2010 the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) issued a release stating that moving to a Green Economy with investments in clean energy, sustainable transport, forests and environmentally-friendly agriculture can reduce poverty and help meet Millennium Development Goals (UNEP, 2011). These principles are reflected in Jamaica’s Vision 2030 national development plan. Strategic Goal 4 of Jamaica’s Vision 2030 is for a healthy, natural environment. One of the outcomes of this goal is sustainable management and use of environmental and natural resources (PIOJ, n.d.). Jamaica’s Environmental Management Systems Policy was developed to support Jamaica’s transition to a Green Economy. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals for 2030 Goals Importance Goal 1 – No poverty This goal seeks to eradicate extreme poverty by 2030 and ensure that all men and women have equal rights to economic resources and reduce the poor’s vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters. Goal 2 – Zero hunger Hunger and malnutrition mean less productive individuals who are more prone to disease and are thus often unable to earn more and improve their livelihoods. Goal 3 – Good health Access to good health and well-being is a human right and it is therefore important to and wellbeing ensure that universal health coverage is achieved, essential medicines and vaccines are made affordable, women have access to sexual and reproductive health care and all preventable deaths in children end. Goal 4 – Quality Obtaining a quality education is the foundation to improving people’s lives and education sustainable development. This may allow people to break out of the poverty cycle, reduce inequalities and achieve gender equality. Goal 5 – Gender Providing women and girls with equal access to education, health care, decent work and equality representation in political and economic decision-making processes will fuel sustainable economies and benefit societies and humanity at large. Goal 6 – Clean Water Millions of people die each year from diseases associated with inadequate water supply, and Sanitation sanitation and hygiene. Managing water sustainably allows us to better manage our production of food and energy, as well as contribute to decent work and economic growth.  5 Goal 7 – Affordable A lack of access to energy supplies is a constraint to human and economic development. and clean energy However, the burning of fossil fuels contributes to climate change and can negatively impact people’s well-being and the environment. It is therefore recommended that countries invest in renewable energy resources, prioritising energy efficient practices and adopting clean energy technologies and infrastructure. Goal 8 – Decent work Poverty eradication is only possible through stable and well-paid jobs. Job creation and and economic growth the improvement of work conditions for those who are currently working, but not earning enough to lift themselves and their families out of poverty is needed. Productive employment and “decent” work are key elements to achieving fair globalisation and poverty reduction. In addition, unemployment can lead to unrest and disrupt peace if it is left unaddressed. Goal 9 - Industry, Investments in infrastructure – transport, irrigation, energy and information and innovation and communication technology – are crucial to achieving sustainable development and infrastructure empowering communities in many countries. Goal 10 – Reduced Sustainable development cannot be achieved if people are excluded from inequalities opportunities, services and the chance for a better life. Goal 11 – Sustainable Since the future will be urban for a majority of people, the solutions to some of the cities and communities greatest issues facing humans – poverty, climate change, healthcare, education – must be found in city life. By choosing to act sustainably we choose to build cities where all citizens live a decent quality of live and form a part of the city’s productive dynamic, creating shared prosperity and social stability without harming the environment. Goal 12 – Responsible Sustainable consumption and production refers to promoting resource and energy consumption and efficiency, sustainable infrastructure and providing access to basic services, green and production decent jobs and a better quality of life for all. Its implementation helps to achieve overall development plans, reduce future economic, environmental and social costs, strengthen economic competitiveness and reduce poverty. Goal 13 – Climate Climate change is caused by human activities and is threatening the way we live and the action future of our planet. By addressing climate change, we can build a sustainable world for everyone. Goal 14 – Life below Oceans provide key natural resources including food, medicines, biofuels and other water products. They help with the breakdown and removal of waste and pollution, and their coastal ecosystems act as buffers to reduce damage from storms. Maintaining healthy oceans also supports climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts. Careful management of this resource is a key feature of a sustainable future.  6 Goal 15 – Life on land Forests cover nearly 31% of our planet’s land area. From the air we breathe, to the water we drink, to the food we eat – forests sustain us. Almost 75% of the world’s poor are affected directly by land degradation. Forests and nature are also important for recreation and mental well-being. In many cultures, natural landscapes are closely linked to spiritual values, religious beliefs and traditional teachings. Deforestation and forest degradation will result in loss of habitat for all species, a decrease in freshwater quality, an increase in soil erosion, land degradation and higher emissions of carbon into the atmosphere. Goal 16 – Peace, Peaceful, just and inclusive societies are necessary to achieve all the SDGs. People justice and strong everywhere need to be free of fear from all forms of violence and feel safe as they go institutions about their lives whatever their ethnicity, faith or sexual orientation. Goal 17 – Partnerships A successful sustainable development agenda requires partnerships between for the goals governments, the private sector and civil society. These inclusive partnerships built upon principles and values, a shared vision, and shared goals that place people and the planet at the centre, are needed a t the global, regional, national and local level. For more information please go to http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development- goals/#prettyPhoto ENVIRONMENTAL LAW Environmental laws are bodies of statements defining what acceptable environmental behaviour is for individuals and groups, according to the larger community, and attempting to balance competing social and private interests. They provide the legal basis for protecting endangered species, critical habitat, other natural resources and humans. NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT AND PLANNING AGENCY The legal entity responsible for the protection and management of Jamaica’s natural resources is the National Environment and Planning Agency (NEPA). Established in 2001 NEPA is a merger of three entities, the Natural Resources Conservation Authority (NRCA), the Town and Country Planning Department and the Land Development and Utilization Commission (nepa.gov.jm). NEPA operates under the following acts:  NRCA Act (1991)  Beach Control Act (1956)  Watersheds Protection Act (1963)  Wildlife Protection Act (1945)  Endangered Species Act (2000)  The Town and Country Planning Act (1958)  The Land Development and Utilization Act (1966) Some of NEPA’s responsibilities include environmental education, environmental monitoring, project planning and monitoring and issuing environmental permits and licences. The management tools promoted by NEPA are: Conservation – Sensible and careful use of natural resources by humans to preserve them for the future.  7 Conservation Biology – Subdivision of conservation. Multidisciplinary science created to deal with the crisis of maintaining the genes, species, communities and ecosystems that make up earth’s biodiversity. Its goals are to investigate human impacts on biodiversity and to develop practical approaches to preserving biodiversity Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) – Tool used to identify the environmental, social and economic impacts of a project prior to decision making. It aims to predict environmental impacts at an early stage in project planning and is designed to reduce adverse impacts and shape projects to suit the local environment (United Nation Environment Programme). Natural Resource Valuation – This is the process of placing monetary values on natural environmental resources, their services and effects. This allows for a more accurate representation of the costs associated with development. These services may be estimated through: Direct market price, e.g. the decline in the value of fish catch between 1975 and 2000 cost the country an estimated US$1.3 billion (Sary, Munro and Woodley, 2003). Damage cost avoided, e.g. estimating the role of coral reefs in preventing wave damage. The reef in Discovery Bay being severely degraded would result in 100 structures including two hotels, a church and an airfield being flooded during a storm event within a 25 year period. Travel costs, e.g. how much visitors would spend to visit Jamaica. Damage to beaches would reduce the number of visits to Jamaica and thus reduce tourism revenue. Costs people are willing to pay for measures to save a natural resource, e.g. the willingness of visitors to pay $9.50 more than the $3 entrance fee if the money was spent on conservation efforts in Hanauma Bay, Hawaii. (Van Beukering & Cesar, 2004). Natural Resource Valuation can be used in an EIA as part of a cost benefit analysis. Environmental Management Systems – This is a management tool that enables organisations, institutions and businesses to address the impact of their goods and services on the environment. This may include ways to recycle office paper, implement more efficient waste management systems and phase out or replace certain chemicals or materials. Examples of Environmental Management Systems include Green Globe certification, a certification programme for sustainable tourism, and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Green Globe certified companies work towards energy and water conservation, positively contribute to local communities and their environment, reduce operational costs and to meet the high expectations of green leisure and business travellers (www.greenglobe.com). ISO 14000 certification addresses environmental management and provides tools for companies and organisations that want to control their environmental impact and improve their environmental performance (https://www.iso.org/standard/60857.html). Case Study – Environmental Audits for Sustainable Tourism (EAST) Project. Funded by USAID, 1997 (https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PDACH399.pdf) After instituting EMS between 1998 and 2000 five Jamaican hotels reduced:  Water consumption by 50,000,000 US gallons (73,000 US gallons per room)  Energy use by 1,665,000 kWh (12%) Total savings US$620,000; Return on investment (ROI) 352%  8 Several companies have taken initiatives to reduce costs since the EAST project. These include: National Commercial Bank and University of Technology, Jamaica. TUTORIAL QUESTIONS 1. What are natural resources? Name the two categories and explain the differences between them, providing examples. 2. a) What is pollution? b ) Distinguish between degradable and non-degradable pollutants. c) Which type of pollutant has a greater impact on the environment? 3. Provide a list of the environmental problems affecting the Caribbean and the planet generally. What are the root causes of these problems? 4. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of industrialised societies? 5. a) Distinguish between human-centred and earth-centred worldviews. b) Discuss the difference that you would expect between t h e h u m a n - c e n t r e d a n d e a r t h - c e n t r e d attitude towards the dwindling population of northern right whales in the world’s oceans. 6. a) What is environmental sustainability? b ) Discuss several ways in which humans are making the environment unsustainable for other organisms. 7. a) State what is meant by sustainable development citing a specific example. b) Discuss ways in which greening of Caribbean economies can achieve sustainable development. c) Describe the role of the bioeconomy and circular economy in sustainable development 8. Explain what is meant by the term “environmental law”. Briefly explain the mandate of NEPA and list some of the activities in which it is currently involved. 9. What is an environmental impact assessment (EIA)? How could NEPA use Natural Resource Valuation methods as a tool in an EIA? 10. Propose an argument to convince an organisation to implement an environmental management system.  9 List of References Arora, S., Bhaukhandi, K. D., & Mishra, P. K. (2020). Coronavirus lockdown helped the environment to bounce back. Science of the Total Environment, 742, 140573. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140573 (2023). Green Globe. (2024, June 20). Green Globe. https://www.greenglobe.com/ ISO 14001:2015. (n.d.). ISO. https://www.iso.org/standard/60857.html PIOJ. (n.d.). Vision 2030 Jamaica. https://www.vision2030.gov.jm/ Sary, Z., Munro, J., & Woodley, J. (2003). Status report on a Jamaican reef fishery: current value and the costs of non-management. https://aquadocs.org/handle/1834/29487 UNEP (2011). Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication - A Synthesis for Policy Makers. https://www.unep.org/greeneconomy United Nations (n.d.). Sustainable Development. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment USAID (n.d.). JAMAICA: Environmental Audits for Sustainable Tourism (EAST) Project. https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PDACH399.pdf Van Beukering, P. J. H., & Cesar, H. S. J. (2004). Ecological economic modeling of coral reefs: evaluating tourist overuse at Hanauma Bay and algae blooms at the Kihei coast, Hawai'i (1). Pacific Science, 58(2), 243+. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A116342812/AONE?u=anon~3eb0d75&sid=googleScholar&xid=3c5ca581 Originally Compiled By: Raymond Martin First Revision Done By: Nikki Bramwell, Raymond Martin and Damian Nesbeth Second Revision Done By: Raymond Martin, May 2012 Third Revision Done By: Raymond Martin, December 2014 Fourth Revision Done by: Raymond Martin, July 2017 Updated by: Raymond Martin, August 2021