Reviewer STS (Prelim) PDF

**INTRODUCTION** **STS** deals with the interactions between science and technology and social, cultural, political, and economic contexts that shape and are shaped by them. **Kyoto Protocol** (The Kyoto Protocol mandated that industrialized nations cut their greenhouse gas emissions at a time whe...

**INTRODUCTION** **STS** deals with the interactions between science and technology and social, cultural, political, and economic contexts that shape and are shaped by them. **Kyoto Protocol** (The Kyoto Protocol mandated that industrialized nations cut their greenhouse gas emissions at a time when the threat of global warming was growing rapidly). According to **Lewis & Gagel**, STS education integrates sciences and value education. Meaning, an informed and responsible citizenry that understands the positive benefits and power of science and technology must also be aware of the moral and ethical dimensions of science and technology. ***Meaning of Science*** 1\. **Science is a process.** - Science as a process refers to the practices employed in science to uncover knowledge and interpret the meaning of those discoveries. - Science is a process because the scientific method makes any hypothesis (or theory) open to be proven against. \(a) Concerned with discovering relationships between observable phenomena in terms of theories. \(b) Systematized theoretical inquiries. \(c) It seeks truth about nature. \(d) It is determined by observation, hypothesis, measurement, analysis and experimentation. \(e) It is the description and explanation of the development of knowledge. \(f) It is the study of the beginning and the end of everything that exist. \(g) Conceptualization of new ideas, from the abstract to the particular. \(h) Kind of human cultural activity. 2**. Science is a product.** - Science is a product because without those historic steps, a yet more complex ideas couldn\'t have appear. For example, Sir Isaac Newton cannot formulate the laws of motion without the ideas of Aristotle and Galileo Galilie. \(a) Systematized, organized body of knowledge based on facts or truths. \(b) A set of logical and empirical methods which provide for the systematic observation of empirical phenomena. \(c) Source of cognitive authority. \(d) Concerned with verifiable concepts. \(e) A product of the mind. \(f) It is the variety of knowledge, people, skills, organizations, facilities, techniques, physical resources, methods and technologies that taken together and in relation with one another. ***Meaning of Technology*** - On the same view, technology is defined as both a process and a product. **1. Technology is a process.** - **Technology** as a process provides the means to make and deliver products with attainment of specified product features by use, application and control of methods, techniques, machines and resources. - The steps in technological process consist of (1) identification of the problem, (2) searching of information, (3) designing and constructing, and (4) evaluation of what have been constructed. \(a) It is the application of science. \(b) The practice, description, and terminology of applied sciences. \(c) The intelligent organization and manipulation of materials for useful purposes. \(d) The means employed to provide for human needs and wants. \(e) Focused on inventing new or better tools and materials or new and better ways of doing things. \(f) A way of using findings of science to produce new things for a better way of living. \(g) Search for concrete solutions that work and give wanted results. \(h) It is characteristically calculative and imitative, tends to be dangerously manipulative. \(i) Form of human cultural activity. 2\. **Technology as a product.** - Technology as a product could be a ready to use commodity or something you can hand over to someone else (even services are products because you give them to others). It can be hardware or software. \(a) A system of know-how, skills, techniques and processes. \(b) It is like a language, rituals, values, commerce and arts, it is an intrinsic part of cultural system and it both shapes and reflects the system values. \(c) It is the product of the scientific concept. \(d) The complex combination of knowledge, materials and methods. \(e) Material products of human making or fabrication. \(f) Total societal enterprise. ***Meaning of Society*** - Society is a dynamic entity because it is subject to constant changes; changes may take place slowly and gradually or suddenly and abruptly. - Society is made up of individuals who have agreed to work together for mutual benefit. 1\. Came from the Latin word **["socius"]** that means friendship, companionship or sociability. 2\. It is a dynamic system of [collective, cohabitation of groups of individuals] with mutual understanding, benefits and common goals. 3\. Made up of community of people. a\) Scientists b\) Technologists c\) Recipients (Users) 4\. It provides us with [a system and a platform] to work together for the betterment of the world. With the collective efforts of the society, we are able to improve our living and social conditions. ***SOCIETY AND SOCIAL CHANGE*** 1. Society is dynamic and constantly changing. 2. Changes can be gradual or abrupt. 3. Factors influencing change: - Technology - Social institutions - Population - Environment ***SOCIETY AS A COLLABORATIVE ENTITY*** 1. Society is made up of individuals who work together for mutual benefit. 2. Joint efforts contribute to the well-being of groups, communities, and society. **Purposes of Science & Technology** 1\. To improve quality of human condition. 2\. To provide solution to our practical problems. 3\. To establish relevant institutional linkages and essential mechanisms. 4\. To develop individual knowledge. 5\. To find order in the chaos of nature and deliver personal and social liberation. 6\. To give an information and explanation of the natural world. 7\. To develop new areas of knowledge. 8\. To combat irrationality. 9\. To maintain the availability of natural resources. ***IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE ON SOCIETY*** I. Introduction to Technological Advancements - Technology has become integral to many aspects of our lives. - Key areas of technological influence: - Accessibility of information - Improved communication - Changes in transportation II\. Everyday Examples of Technology's Impact - Communication: - Shift from face-to-face interactions to online messaging and texting. - Smartphones store phone numbers, eliminating the need for memorization. - E-commerce: - Online shopping offers convenience, especially during the Covid-19 pandemic. - Safe access to goods from home without visiting malls or grocery stores. - Caution is advised in choosing reliable sellers. III\. Balancing Benefits and Consequences of Technology - While technology makes life easier and more convenient, it comes with potential risks. - The importance of being mindful of the impact of technological advancements. IV\. Science and Technology as Solutions to Global Issues - Role in Problem Solving: - Science and technology address problems related to health, education, and infrastructure. - Covid-19 Pandemic: - The pandemic highlights the need for scientific solutions, such as the development of vaccines. - Scientists are working on fast-tracking a vaccine to combat the virus. [The role of science and technology] is essential; it provides solution to difficult problems, the problems that have the potential to become major bottlenecks to the overall growth of the country. Some of these problems could be related to health, education, availability of healthy food and drinking water, and infrastructure. ***Limitations of Science and Technology*** **Epistemological concerns.** - It cannot help us with questions about the God, the ultimate Good, and Truth. It cannot deny nor confirm the existence of God, soul, heaven and other uncertainties. **Metaphysical concerns.** - Immaterial and transcendental nature is beyond the grasp of scientific inquiry. It cannot speak to issue of ultimate origin, meaning or morality. - Immaterial and transcendental describe anything that has to do with the spiritual or non-physical world, which is beyond the realm of rationality and the material world or ordinary and everyday experience; it is mystical or supernatural. ***Technology and the Quality of Life*** **New technologies are improving the quality of life. These are seen in:** 1. Medical research in pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and medical devices helps us lead healthier lives and offers new hope for the sick. 2. Sophisticated traffic management systems for land, sea, and air transportation enable the smooth and timely movement of more people and goods. 3. Agricultural research is producing safer, healthier, and tastier food products. 4. Automobile research is providing safer, cleaner, energy efficient, and more intelligent vehicles. 5. Information and telecommunications technologies have enabled instantaneous communications around the globe. **ANCIENT TIMES** - The Greeks began to calculate and predict the movement of the moon and stars through mathematics and logic rather than using gods and spirits to explain everything. It was then the birth of ancient Greek Science. - The ancient Greek science is about the attempts to explain and understand the natural world, which would include how things are made of, how the world began if it did began or if it all has always been here. ***Pre-Socratic Philosophers*** - The views of the first thinkers of antiquity, also known as the pre-Socratic philosophers from Miletus, opened new paths for the study of nature using human logic. They emerged the rational thoughts from the confines of mythology. **Thales** - Miletus - 624-546 BC - Founder of Ionian school - Theoretician of geometry - Stated that the origin of all matter [(arché) is water.] - Also believed that the [Earth rests on water.] - [First predicted the solar eclipse before it happened] (May 28, 585 BC). Thales, the first Greek philosopher and father of Western philosophy, philosophy, was born in the city of Miletus, an ancient Greek Ionian city on the western coast of Asia Minor in today's Turkey. And [Thales believed that the "arche" of everything is water; arché means origin]. Thales believed that life begins from and requires water. Thales main contribution lies in trying to provide scientific explanation behind worldly phenomenon that had been previously explained by mythological beliefs. His biggest questions about the universe were "What is the universe made of"? " What is the arché of everything"? According to him, the following are the rules in finding arché; 1. It has to explain existence. This means to say that an arche can explain why anything exists and had to have a cause and ground for its existence, 2. It has to explain change. In other words, an arché had to be a cause of change, 3. It had to explain motion. This means that an arché can explain the change in place of things, and 4. It has to explain life. Life of things had to be explained by arché. **[Again, Thales believed that arché is water because it can explain existence, change, motion and life.]** **Anaximander** - Miletus - 610 - 546 BC - [Rejected Thale's claim that this arché is water.] - Believed that [arché is unlimited, boundless, infinite and non-perceptible substance.] - Claimed that the origin of everything in the universe is a mixture of two pairs of opposites-apeiron. - [First cartographer.] Anaximander was born in 610 BC in the Ancient Greek city of Miletus (now in Turkey). Little is known about his early life but it is believed that he was a student of the Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus. Anaximander contributed to the development of early geography and cartography-the science of drawing maps. In fact, he was credited in designing the first published map. Anaximander believed that the inhabited portion of the [Earth was flat and it was made up of the top face of a cylinder where the diameter is three times the height of cylinder.] Anaximander rejected the idea of Thales that arché is water and believed that the source or origin (arché) of everything is apeiron, which means boundless or unlimited. **Anaximenes** - Miletus - 585-528 BC - Considered that air was the origin of everything in the universe and the earth is a [broad flat disc floating on the circumambient air.] - Explained that thunder and lightning result from wind breaking out of clouds. - Distinguished clearly between planets and stars. Almost nothing is known of Anaximenes' life except, as noted, that he was the son of Eurystratos of Miletus and contemporary and a student of Anaximander. [Anaximenes believed air was the arché], meaning that air is an eternal, original substance from which the physical universe was formed. [Anaximenes, the earth is a broad disk, floating on a cushion of air.] **Heraclitus** - Ephesus - 535 - 475 BC - Most enigmatic among the pre-Socratics and known as the \"Weeping Philosopher" - [Believed that fire gave rise to all things and everything is in flux.] - Considered the human soul to be composed of fire and water---fire being the noble part and water the ignoble. **Heraclitus** was the son of Herakon, a descendant of Androclus, the founder of a great Ionian dynasty of that period, which ruled the region. Philosophers. He was a loner who suffered from melancholia for a period of time, which prevented him from completing several of his works. **"One cannot step twice into the same river".** According to Heraclitus, fire was the most basic element and all other elements originated from fire, thus, it is fire that gave rise to all. **Parmenides** - Elea - 515-450 BC - [Believed that change is impossible.] According to him, everything that exist is permanent, ungenerated and indestructible. - [Coming-into-existence or ceasing-to-exist are likewise impossible], according to him. According to Parmenides, everything that exists is permanent, un-generated, indestructible, and unchanging. He argued as follows: - Whatever is, is - Whatever is, must be - What is not, is not - What is not, cannot exist. The \"no-longer\" and the \"not-yet\" are therefore variants of \"what-is-not\", and so the past and future do not exist either. Then, change is impossible. **Anaxagoras** - Ionia - 500-428 BC - Explained the scientific reasons behind natural phenomena such as [eclipses, rainbows and meteors.] - Stated that the moon reflects the sun's light. - Claimed that the sun was a mass of red-hot metal. - Believed that there are mountains on the surface of the moon and that it was inhabited. Anaxagoras was convicted of atheism (not believing in the existence of gods) and exiled from Athens in the 430s. Anaxagoras theorized that there are numerous (perhaps infinite) fundamental, physical substances that combine in unique ways to construct this diversity we see. a. There is no becoming and no passing-away. b. Everything is in everything. c. The principle of predominance **Empedocles** - Italy - 495-435 BC - Believed that the world is composed of the [four primary elements, Earth, water, wind and fire. "The fourfold root of all things."] - Claimed that the world came into being and is maintained by the [mixing of the four primary elements as they come together and are separated by the processes of Love and Strife.] Empedocles lived 2500 years ago, soon after the dawn of scientific thought in Ancient Greece. He was born in Acragas, on the island of Sicily, which was then part of Ancient Greece. [Love (a force of attraction and combination)] and pushed apart by another force -- [Strife (a force of repulsion and separation).] For Empedocles, it is the forces of Love and Strife that make the universe so dynamic. ***The Big Three of Greek Philosophy: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle*** **Socrates** - Athens - 470-399 BC - Well known for [wandering around the agora and marketplace of Athens and ask people about what they believe.] - Remembered more for how he taught than for what he taught (Socratic Method). - [He was put on trial on 399 BC and was accused of corrupting youth and disbelieving in the gods.] Socrates was born and lived nearly his entire life in Athens. His father Sophroniscus was a stonemason and his mother, Phaenarete, was a midwife. Socrates is often credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy. His largest contribution to philosophy is the [Socratic Method.] In 399 B.C., Socrates was accused of corrupting the youth of Athens and of impiety, or heresy. The jury was not amused and sentenced him to death by drinking a [mixture of poison hemlock.] **Plato** - Athens - 428-348 BC - Founded the first university in the western civilization called [The Academy] where he taught [about Socrates and Socrates ideas]. - Famous in his [Theory of Forms where it asserts that the physical world is not really the \'real\' world;] instead, ultimate reality exists beyond our physical world. Plato's parents came from the Greek aristocracy. His father, Ariston, descended from the kings of Athens and Messenia. His mother, Perictione, is said to be related to the 6th century B.C.E. Greek statesman Solon. Plato split the world into two; \(1) The physical realm, and \(2) The transcendent or spiritual realm - The physical realm is the material stuff we see and interact with on a daily basis; this realm is changing and imperfect. - The spiritual realm, however, exists beyond the physical realm. Plato calls this spiritual realm the Realm of Forms (also called the Realm of Ideas or Realm of Ideals). This particular world is invulnerable to the pains and changes of the material world; it is perfect and unchanging. **Aristotle** - Athens - 384-322 BC - Believed that [the one thing that all people want is happiness.] - Believed that [the two fundamental kinds of motion are natural motion and violent motion.] The apparent movement of celestial objects is a natural motion, whereas lifting an object is a violent motion. Aristotle was a student of Plato and at seventeen, he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven. During this period Aristotle acquired his encyclopedic knowledge of the philosophical tradition, which he draws on extensively in his works. One of his most important study of personal morality and the ends of human life is the [Nicomachean Ethics.] Aristotle defines virtue as the average, or "mean", between excess and deficiency. Aristotle is known for his study of politics and government as well as his ideas on ethics. ***Ancient Greeks' Technology*** - During the 5th century BC, ancient Greek technology developed, leading to the invention of the rotary mills, screw, water pump, gear, water organ, water clock, the torsion catapult and the use of steam to operate machines and toys. **Astrolabe** - The astrolabe is one of the significant ancient Greece inventions. It is an instrument [used to make astronomical measurements like altitudes of celestial bodies.] It also provided information [about the location of the sun, planets and some of the stars]. It was used in the past by astronomers, astrologers, and navigators, mainly for; - locating and predicting the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars, - determining local time given local latitude and vice versa, and - For triangulation, and surveying. **Overhead Crane (515 BC)** - A mechanical device invented by the ancient Greeks that [is designed to lift heavy ground]. This crane was mounted on a mobile platform. **Catapult (399 BC)** - It was [invented by Dionysius the Elder of Syracuse] [for forcefully propelling stones], spears or other projectiles; use mainly as a military weapon since ancient times. This weapon **was basically large bows made of wood, horn, and animal sinew.** **Water Mill (3rd Century BC)** - Water-powered mill [used for grinding grain, rolling and hammering]. Because of it, mankind was suddenly able to turn simple grains, such as wheat and rice, into an important staple food. **Analog Computer (150 BC)** - The Antikythera Mechanism had several dials and clock faces, each which served a different function for determining and [forecasting important astronomical and calendar events, and even eclipses.] **Cartography (600 BC)** - Cartography is the study and practice of making maps. Ancient Greeks created the earliest paper maps that were used for navigation, and to depict certain areas of the Earth. **MIDDLE AGES** - The middle Ages is between 5th and 15^th^ centuries of European history. It is called middle ages because it is the time between the fall of Roman Empire and the beginning of the Early Modern Europe. It is also called as [Dark Ages] due to loss of technology of the Romans and Europe was dominated by superstitions. ***[Early Middle Ages (500-1000).]*** - This era is often considered, to begin with the "fall of Rome" and end sometime in the 11^th^ century. - It encompasses the reigns of Charlemagne who is known for being first Holy Roman Emperor. - Inventions that developed in Early Middle Ages improved the quality of life of every human. - **[Watermill]**, which generates electricity where can apply in different things like grinding grain to make a flour and important staple food; - **[Stirrups]** help warriors to maintain their balance while fighting; - **[Heavy plough]** is commonly known as "ard"/ scratch-plough. Plough is drawn by working animals like oxen and horses and it helps to loosen the soil or surface for preparation in planting. ***[High Middle Ages (1000-1300).]*** - Many scholars called it \"Medieval Period\", which means going to the Renaissance period. The history of high middle ages is also a birth of the new ideas, thinkers, philosophers, writers and artist. - The Catholic Church and the Monarchs (Kings and Queens) became the most powerful institution in this era. It is the time in high Middle Ages that only literate people are those in the church. - First is the Pope, he is the supreme leader. - Second is the Cardinal, he is known as the prince of the church, and has a chance to become Pope. A cardinal is also from the elite or royal family. - Third is the Archbishop and Bishop. They also come from the elite family. Last is the priest, monks and nuns. - The highest in hierarchy in the European society are: - **[Monarchs which are the Kings and Queens]**, Dukes, and other royal who is a member in the ruling class. - This followed by **[the nobles and barons.]** They are the members of counts, prince and princesses or also known as the aristocrats. - Next are **[the knights]**, the military forces in the middle ages. Their first priority and responsibility is to protect the nobles. - Last in the rank is **[peasant]**. They composed of farmers, laborers, artisans, slave in which they serve in their landlord's land in exchange for their protection in times of wars and other benefits. **The Crusades** - These were a series of religious wars in western Asia and Europe initiated, supported and sometimes directed by the Catholic Church between 11th and 17th century. The crusades differed from other religious conflicts in which participants considered them as a penitential exercise that brought absolution. - What are the impacts of these crusades? Some of the impacts of the crusades may thus be summarized in general terms as follows: - An increased presence of Christians in the Levant during the middle Ages. - The development of military orders. - A polarization of the East and West based on religious differences. - The specific application of religious goals to warfare in the Levant, Iberian Peninsula, and Baltic region, in particular. - The increased role and prestige of the popes and the Catholic Church in secular affairs. - The souring of relations between the West and the Byzantine Empire leading, ultimately, to the latter's destruction. - An increase in the power of the royal houses of Europe. - A stronger collective cultural identity in Europe. - An increase in xenophobia and intolerance between Christians and Muslims, and between Christians and Jews, heretics and pagans. - An increase in international trade and exchange of ideas and technology. - An increase in the power of such Italian states as Venice, Genoa, and Pisa. - The appropriation of many Christian relics to Europe. - The use of a religious historical precedent to justify colonialism, warfare and terrorism. - There are some technology in the high middle ages, the [hourglass, invented by Monk Liutprad], the [tidal mill, the eyeglasses or spectacles invented by Friar Roger Bacon] for correcting the vision of eyes, and the [windmill invented by Terence Paul Smith.] ***[Late Middle Ages (1300-1500).]*** - The European prosperity and growth came to a halt. A series of famines and plagues, such as the Great Famine of 1315-1317 and the Black Death, reduced the population by as much as half according to some estimates. **The Great Famine.** - Have you ever been really hungry for a day? Imagine what it would feel like to be hungry for days, weeks, months, and even years. This is what happened to the people in Europe during The Great Famine of 1315-1317. - During famine, food inflation hit the towns. The agriculture is destroyed. The grains could not ripen, straw and hay for the animals could not be dried and there was difficulty to produce salt which was used to preserve meat. **The Black Death.** - It was a devastating global epidemic of bubonic plague that struck Europe and Asia in the mid-1300s. The plague originated in China and arrived in Europe in October 1347, when 12 ships from the Black Sea docked at the Sicilian port of Messina. - The symptoms were strange swellings, then followed by other unpleasant symptoms such as fever, chills, vomiting, diarrhea, terrible aches and pains and then death. This Black Death was caused by a bacillus called Yersina pestis. **The Hundred Years of War.** - This was fought between England and France and lasted from 1337 to 1453. The war was a series of battles with long periods of peace in between. Two factors lay at the origin of the conflict: - First, the status of the duchy of Guyenne (or Aquitaine)- though it belonged to the kings of England, it remained a fief of the French crown, and the kings of England wanted independent possession. - Second, As the closest relatives of the last direct Capetian king (Charles IV, who had died in 1328), the kings of England from 1337 claimed the crown of France. ***[The Technology Revolution]*** - The Middle Ages were one of the most outstandingly inventive periods in the whole of human history. It was then that the foundations of modern sciences were laid and the same time saw what had been justly called [the first industrial revolution.] - According to many historians, the first important technological revolution took place during these years. It was a revolution mainly because of two favors: \(1) Several technologies from Antiquity that had been forgotten were used again on a large scale and a series of new inventions brought medieval technology to a more advanced stage that of the Romans, and \(2) Many of the tools and machines developed during these times remained practically unchanged until the Industrial Revolution. **Horseshoe, horse collar & stirrup.** - Europe experienced a labour shortage that stimulated a search for alternative sources of power and the introduction of labour saving machinery. [The first instrument of this power revolution was the horse.] - Once the horse could be harnessed to the heavy plough by means of the horse collar, it became a more efficient draft animal than the ox, and the introduction of the stirrup made the mounted warrior supreme **Water mill** - The Romans had pioneered the use of water power in the later empire, and some of their techniques probably survived. - The type of water mill that flourished first in northern Europe, however, appears to have been the Norse mill, using a horizontally mounted waterwheel driving a pair of grindstones directly, without the intervention of gearing. - Norse mill requires a good head of water to turn the wheel at an adequate grinding speed **Windmill.** - The sail had been used to harness wind power from the dawn of civilization, but the windmill was unknown in the West until the end of the 12^th^ century. - Wind power is generally less reliable than water power, but where the latter is deficient wind power is an attractive substitute. **Blast Furnace.** - The manufacture of cast iron is the great metallurgical innovation of the Middle Ages. It must be remembered that from the beginning of the Iron Age until late in the Middle Ages the iron ore smelted in the available furnaces had not been completely converted to its liquid form. **Magnetic Compass.** - It provided a means of checking navigation on the open seas in any weather. - Improvements in construction and equipment---such as better barrels for carrying water, more reliable ropes, sails, and anchors, the availability of navigational charts. **Mechanical Clock.** - The medieval interest in mechanical contrivance is well illustrated by the development of the mechanical clock, the oldest of which, driven by weights and controlled by a verge, an oscillating arm engaging with a gear wheel, and dated 1386, survives in Salisbury Cathedral, England. **Printing Press.** - The first large-scale printing workshop was that established at Mainz by Johannes Gutenberg, which was producing a sufficient quantity of accurate type to print a Vulgate Bible about 1455. **The Revival of Science in Europe.** - It happened during the 9th century known as the Carolingan Renaissance under the Frankish Empire. It was called as the reversal of the decline of Western science and technology where knowledge from ancient Greek started to returned in Europe**.** - Frankish empire was under the rule of Charlemagne also known as Charles the Great. He was born on 742 and died on 814 CE. - Alcuin of York (732-804) from England, a monk, poet, educator. He wrote number of works on education, theology and philosophy. Charlemagne met him in Italy on 778 and invited him to Aachen where became the head of Palatine school. ***[The Islamic Golden Age (750-1500).]*** - During the Middle Ages, Muslim Cities such as; Baghdad, Cairo, Tripoli, Cordoba became the center of intellectual and cultural where theologians, scholars, scientists, artists, writers, philosophers, mathematicians and others convened for scholarship, experimentation and discovery. This led the naming of the period ["the Islamic Renaissance or the Islamic Golden Age"]. - Muslims translated most of the famous works of antiquity - Plato, Aristotle and Socrates to Arabic that save their works when the Great Roman Empire has fallen. - The major astronomical instruments that were employed and developed during Islamic period are mural quadrant, armillary sphere, parallactic ruler, celestial sphere, portable quadrants, sundial and qibla finders. Using these instruments, Arab astronomers calculated the circumference of the Earth, based from the assumption on an ancient Middle Eastern hypothesis that the Earth is round, to be 32, 833 km and its diameter is 10, 465 km; almost coinciding with the modern measurements (C=40,075km; D=12,742 km). **Abu Must Jabir Ibn Hayyan (Geberin the West)** - Was the most famous Arab in the early chemical research and was called as [the "Father of Chemistry".] - He wrote more than 100 treatise, of which 22 deal with alchemy and Chemistry. **Abu Bkr Muhammad bin Zakariya al-Razi** - In the field of medicine, the Arab highly developed and continued to improve the healing arts and practices of the ancients. Numerous hospitals were established. - Wrote more than 100 books on medicine, astronomy, logic, philosophy and physical sciences. **Abu Al-Qasim Khalaf Ibn Al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936-1013AD)** - Also known in the West as Abulcasisi, who practiced in Cordoba, published a 1,500 page illustrated encyclopedia of surgery. - [He was also known as the "Pharmacist Surgeon." ] **Abbas Ibn Firnas is the Leonardo** - Muslim poet, astronomer, musician and engineer Abbas Ibn Firnas is the Leonardo Da Vinci of the Islamic world. - The 9^th^ Century inventor was 65 when he made his famous attempt at controlled flight in a rudimentary hang-glider he built. **Alhazen or Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham** - The first person to describe how the eye works. He carried out experiments with reflective materials and proved that light enters the eye, rather than leaving it. - In the 1800's, photographic plates were added to the camera obscura to capture images permanently. The result? [The camera.] **Badi al-Zaman Abu al-Izz Ismail ibn al-Razzaz al-Jazari** - He was a brilliant inventor, who made a significant contribution in engineering in 1206 by devising the world\'s first crankshaft - the most important single mechanical device after the wheel. - This conceptually simple device transforms continuous rotary motion into a linear reciprocating motion, but it is now used in a huge number of modern machines, including automobiles. **Arabic Numerals** - Hindu-Arabic numbers, were invented sometime in fifth century in India. - Europe picked up these numbers from the Arabic civilization, that's why we call them 'Arabic'. - Hindu-Arabic numerals suited their needs better than Roman ones. Arithmetic with Hindu-Arabic numerals became part of the required training for merchant-bankers. **Hygiene** - History lives in everything, and personal hygiene is no exception. **Toothbrush** - Islam was the first global religion that promoted bodily hygiene. The Prophet Mohammed popularized the first toothbrush around the 7th century (600). - Using the twig of Miswak tree, he cleaned his teeth and freshened his breath. Substances similar to Miswak are used in modern toothpaste. **Soap** - Arabs went on to develop their soap production, making liquid and hard soaps that were often perfumed and colored. They did so by using vegetable oils, including olive oil, or some aromatic oils, such as thyme oil. Science would still be based on the Church's ideas and ideals, but, technology did not develop solely in Europe. Many technologies, instead, were the result of inventions that were transferred from the East such as China, India, and the Muslim world.