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EARTH SCIENCE REVIEWER c. Burrowing Organisms EXOGENIC AND ENDOGENIC d. Biological Respiration - terms used in geology to describe the origin or source S...

EARTH SCIENCE REVIEWER c. Burrowing Organisms EXOGENIC AND ENDOGENIC d. Biological Respiration - terms used in geology to describe the origin or source SEDIMENTATION - these processes help us understand the forces - The deposition of sediments, including sand, silt, and mechanisms and clay, by agents such as rivers, wind, and ocean currents ENDOGENIC - these sediments can compact and become - originate from external factors sedimentary rocks - interactions between the Earth's surface and the atmosphere COASTAL PROCESSES - Plate Tectonics, Volcanism, Earthquakes, - The actions of waves, tides, and currents along Mountain Building, Faulting coastlines, leading to the formation of coastal landforms such as: beaches, cliNs, and barrier EXOGENIC islands - originate from within the Earth's interior - driven by heat generated within the Earth and the KARST PROCESSES movement of material - “karst” is a landscape created when water - Erosion, Weathering, Sedimentation, Coastal dissolves rocks, commonly limestone Processes, Karst Processes, Mass Wasting MASS WASTING EROSION - The downslope movement of rock and soil under - The wearing away of Earth's surface by natural the influence of gravity (aNected by gravity), agents causing features like landslides, rockfalls, and WIND EROSION debris flows - Sand Dunes - The movement of soil and sediment by wind PLATE TECTONICS WATER EROSION - how the Earth's lithosphere is divided into - Caused by rivers, streams, and rainfall, leading several plates that move due to convection to the formation of valleys, canyons, and river currents in the underlying asthenosphere deltas - the movement of Earth’s lithospheric plates lead GLACIAL EROSION to various geological features and phenomena, - The grinding and carving of landforms by glaciers such as: CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES WEATHERING - movements can be towards each other - The breakdown of rocks and minerals at or near - formation of subduction zones, mountain the Earth's surface ranges, and volcanic arcs PHYSICAL WEATHERING DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES - Mechanical processes like freeze-thaw cycles - movements can be away from each other and root wedging - formation of mid-ocean ridges and rift valleys CHEMICAL WEATHERING TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES - The alteration of rocks through chemical - movements can glide past each other Reactions, such as dissolution and oxidation - formation of faults and occurrence of BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING earthquakes - This process involves the actions of plants, animals, and microorganisms that can physically GPS TECHNOLOGY or chemically weather rocks - confirmed the Theory of Plate Tectonics a. Root-Wedging b. Biogenic Acids VOLCANISM LAURASIA - the eruption of molten rock (magma) onto the - in the northern hemisphere Earth's surface or within it GONDWANA - in the southern hemisphere EARTHQUAKES - Sudden release of stress and energy along fault FIT OF THE CONTINENTS lines in the Earth's crust, resulting in seismic - One of the most striking pieces of evidence waves, ground shaking, and surface deformation is the way the coastlines of continents, particularly the eastern coast of South MOUNTAIN BUILDING America and the western coast of Africa, - The uplift and formation of mountain ranges due seem to fit together like pieces of a jigsaw to the convergence and collision of tectonic puzzle. This fit suggested that these plates. This process involves folding, faulting, and continents were once joined together the accumulation of rock material FOSSIL EVIDENCE FAULTING - Similar fossil species and geological features - The displacement of rocks along geological were found on opposite sides of the faults, which can create fault scarps and valleys Atlantic Ocean - This suggested that these continents were once CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY connected because such organisms could not - by Alfred Wegener have crossed the vast ocean - The central concept of the continental drift theory is that the Earth's continents were once ROCK AND MOUNTAIN BELTS part of a supercontinent called Pangaea - Geological features and mountain ranges on - Wegener suggested that the continents drifted diNerent continents appeared to continue over time, moving away from their original seamlessly when the continents were brought positions together - He supported this idea with several lines of - This alignment indicated that these landmasses evidences, including: were once part of a larger landmass FIT OF THE CONTINENTS GLACIAL EVIDENCE FOSSIL EVIDENCE - Striations and deposits from ancient ROCK AND MOUNTAIN BELTS glaciers were found in locations that are GLACIAL EVIDENCE now separated by vast oceans PALEOCLIMATIC EVIDENCE - these regions were once located closer to the South Pole, where glaciers - Here are some of the primary reasons why the would have existed continental drift theory was initially rejected: LACK OF MECHANISM PALEOCLIMATIC EVIDENCE TIMING AND RATES OF DRIFT - The distribution of ancient climatic RESISTANCE FROM GEOLOGICAL COMMUNITY zones, as indicated by evidence such as INCOMPLETE EVIDENCE coal beds and desert sandstone deposits LACK OF GEOLOGICAL & GEOPHYSICAL DATA - coal beds found in Antarctica implied that the continent was once located in a warmer climate PANGAEA DATING - Wegener proposed that around 200 million years - refers to the methods used to determine the age ago, all the continents on Earth were joined of rocks, fossils, artifacts, or other objects together as a single supercontinent ABSOLUTE DATING - The term "Pangaea" means "all lands" in Greek - a technique used to determine the specific - began to break apart into two smaller numerical age of a rock supercontinents: RELATIVE DATING DISCONFORMITY - a method used to determine the - Sedimentary rock strata above and below the chronological order of events in Earth's history surface of erosion are parallel to each other without assigning a specific age to the rocks or - Chronological order: deposition, uplifting, fossils involved erosion, and deposition again STRATIGRAPHY FOSSILS - involves the study of rock layers developed by - remains and traces of plants and animals that geologist Nicolas Steno have lived and died PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION BODY FOSSILS - an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary rock - parts of an organism like untouched bones, layers, the youngest rocks are at the top, and the shells and leaf imprints oldest are at the bottom TRACE FOSSILS - surface/topsoil is the youngest layer beneath it is - refers to burrows, casts, and tracks that are the older layer. evidence of life PRINCIPLE OF ORIGINAL HORIZONTALITY - Sedimentary rocks are initially deposited in a. BURROWS - Preserved tunnels or holes horizontal layers made by organisms such as worms or PRINCIPLE OF LATERAL CONTINUITY insects - Beds of sediment extend laterally in all directions b. TRACKS - Impressions left by the feet, until they thin out or grade into a diNerent tracks, or trails of organisms sediment type c. COPROLITES - Fossilized feces that PRINCIPLE OF CROSS-CUTTING provide information about an organism's RELATIONSHIPS diet - If one geological feature (such as a fault or d. GASTROLITHS - Refers to the stones in igneous intrusion) cuts across another, the feature the stomach of extinct reptiles that is cut is older than the one cutting across it MID-ATLANTIC RIDGE - an example of Rift Valley UNCONFORMITY - is a surface of non-deposition or erosion CRUST ANGULAR UNCONFORMITY - the layer of the Earth responsible for movement - attitude of beds above and below the surface of of tectonic activity erosion or unconformity are not the same (beds are not parallel to each other) GEOTHERMAL - released by Earth’s Interior to start endogenic a. Sediments are initially deposited as Process horizontal layers b. The resulting rock layers are then subject to folding c. Rock deformation (folding) is often associated with uplift. Exposure of the folded rock layers to the surface results to erosion d. Finally, the folded and eroded rocks undergo subsidence allowing the resumption of deposition NONCONFORMITY - occurs when sedimentary rocks overlay older intrusive igneous rocks or metamorphic rocks