Week 1-2 Chemistry Review PDF

Week 1​ extreme energy and ​ temperature. The Big Bang: The universe ​ Elements formed: expanded from a hot, dense state. ○​ Hydrogen (H)...

Week 1​ extreme energy and ​ temperature. The Big Bang: The universe ​ Elements formed: expanded from a hot, dense state. ○​ Hydrogen (H) ○​ Helium (He) 1.​ Expansion and Cooling: As the ○​ Small amounts of universe expanded, it cooled. Lithium (Li) and 2.​ Particle Energy: The higher the Beryllium (Be). temperature, the more energetic the particles. Isotopes: 3.​ Element Identity: An element’s identity is determined by the ​ Atoms of the same element number of protons it has. with different atomic masses (same protons, different Formation of Light and Heavy neutrons). Elements ​ Light Elements: Formed during the Big Bang or Primordial Heavier Elements Nucleosynthesis. ​ Formed through Stellar ​ Heavy Elements: Formed in Nucleosynthesis inside stars. Stellar Nucleosynthesis (in ​ High density and temperature stars). in the star’s core enable fusion for creating heavy elements like Nucleosynthesis Silicon and Iron. ​ Definition: The process that creates atomic nuclei from protons and neutrons. Fusion Pathways for Heavy Elements: Light Elements ​ Formed in the early universe 1.​ Proton-Proton Fusion when protons and neutrons 2.​ Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen fused in a process called (CNO) Cycle nuclear fusion due to the  3.​ Triple Alpha Process: Fuses ​ Helium nuclei into ​ Week 2​ heavier elements. ​ Democritus Neutron Capture & Supernova ​ Matter is made of indivisible particles called atoms. ​ Neutron Capture: Forms ​ Atomos = "uncuttable" or elements heavier than iron by "indivisible" in Greek. adding neutrons to existing ​ Atoms are solid, indestructible, nuclei. and separated by empty space ​ Supernova: A massive (void). explosion that creates heavy ​ Speculation: elements like Gold and ○​ Sweet substances have Uranium. These elements smooth atoms. cannot be formed by fusion in ○​ Bitter substances have stars due to the immense energy sharp atoms. required. ○​ Atoms in liquids are slippery (flow easily), while in solids, they stick Atomic Number & Element together. Synthesis ​ Modern Connection: Atoms today are still the smallest unit ​ Atomic Number determines an of matter, but we understand element’s identity. their structure with protons, ​ Nuclear Transmutation: neutrons, and electrons. Changing one element into another by changing the Aristotle number of protons. ​ Rejected Democritus' atomic theory. ​ His theory of the four elements ​ Technetium was the first (Fire, Air, Water, Earth) was artificial element. accepted for over 2000 years. Empedocles' Experiment ​ Suggested that all matter is a C. Structure of the Atom mix of the four elements. ​ Experiment: ​ Atom: Smallest unit of matter. ○​ Stick burns (contains Composed of protons, neutrons, Fire). and electrons. ○​ Residue is left (Earth). Subatomic Particles: ○​ Residue is damp (Water). ○​ Smoke is produced (Air). 1.​ Proton: Positive charge, in nucleus, defines the element. 2.​ Neutron: No charge, same mass as protons, in nucleus. B. Development of the Atomic 3.​ Electron: Negative charge, Theory outside nucleus, moves in John Dalton (1800s) energy levels or orbitals. ​ Revived atomic theory. ​ Dalton's Atomic Theory: D. Atomic Numbers and Mass 1.​ Matter is made of indivisible atoms. ​ Atomic Number = Number of 2.​ Atoms combine in fixed protons. ratios to form ​ Atomic Mass = Protons + compounds. Neutrons. ​ Neutron Calculation = Atomic Alchemical Elements Mass – Atomic Number. ​ Alchemy: Early chemistry; Examples: alchemists tried to turn base metals into gold. ​ Chlorine (Cl): Atomic number ​ They discovered lab techniques 17, mass number 35. Neutrons like distillation, sublimation, = 35 – 17 = 18. crystallization, and filtration. ​ Carbon (C): Atomic number 6, mass number 12. Neutrons = 12 – 6 = 6. E.Scientists and Their Discoveries numbers.​ Joseph John Thompson Week 3​ ​ Cathode Ray Experiment: ​ Discovered electrons as A. Chemical Bonding negatively charged particles. ​ Proposed the Plum Pudding 1. IONIC BOND Model: Atoms have a positive ​ A strong attraction between “soup” with electrons scattered positive and negative ions. inside. ​ Ionic Compound: Compounds Ernest Rutherford held together by ionic bonds, usually formed between metals ​ Gold Foil Experiment: Showed (which lose electrons) and atoms are mostly empty space, nonmetals (which gain with a dense nucleus. electrons). ​ Discovered the nucleus ​ Cations: Atoms that lose contains positive charge electrons and become positively (protons). charged. ​ Anions: Atoms that gain electrons and become Niels Bohr negatively charged. ​ Proposed that electrons move in Example: NaCl (Sodium Chloride). orbits around the nucleus, similar to planets around the sun. 2. COVALENT BOND Henry Moseley ​ A bond where two atoms share valence electrons, typically ​ Proved that elements are between nonmetals. defined by atomic number, not ​ Covalent Compound: A atomic weight. compound where atoms are ​ Helped reorganize the Periodic held together by covalent Table based on atomic bonds. Types of Covalent Bonds: These forces affect the physical properties of molecular compounds. ​ Polar Covalent Bond: Electrons are shared unequally, leading to 1.​ London Dispersion Forces: slight positive and negative Weak forces caused by charges. temporary electron distribution. ○​ Why Oxygen attracts Example: CH4 (Methane). electrons more than 2.​ Dipole-Dipole Forces: Hydrogen: Oxygen’s Attraction between positive and nucleus has more negative ends of polar protons, attracting the molecules. Example: HCl. electrons more strongly. 3.​ Hydrogen Bonding: Special ○​ Example: H2O (Water). dipole-dipole interaction ​ Nonpolar Covalent Bond: involving H and electronegative Electrons are shared equally, atoms like N, O, or F. Stronger and the molecule remains than dipole-dipole. Example: neutral. H2O. ○​ Example: O2 (Oxygen 4.​ Ion-Dipole Forces: Attraction molecule). between an ion and the partial charge of a polar molecule. Example: NaCl in water. 3. Molecular Polarity ​ Polar Molecule: One end is C. Biological Molecules slightly positive, and the other end is slightly negative (due to 1.​ Carbohydrates: Organic unequal electron sharing). molecules that provide energy ​ Dipole: A molecule with two (e.g., glucose). Two types: opposite electrical charges ○​ Simple Sugars: Easily (positive and negative). processed, like monosaccharides and disaccharides. B. Intermolecular Forces ○​ Complex Sugars: Polysaccharides made up of linked sugars, like  starch (stored form of Collision Theory: Chemical reactions sugar in plants). occur when particles collide with 2.​ Lipids: Non-water soluble sufficient energy and in the correct molecules that play roles in orientation. energy storage, insulation, and forming cellular membranes. ​ Factors for collision to lead to ○​ Types: Fats, steroids, a reaction: waxes. 1.​ Collision: Particles must ○​ Saturated vs. physically collide. Unsaturated: Saturated 2.​ Correct Orientation: fats are solid at room Particles must align in a temperature; unsaturated way that allows for the are liquid. breaking of bonds. 3.​ Proteins: Made from amino 3.​ Sufficient Energy: acids, essential for structure, Particles need enough transport, and movement. energy to break existing ○​ Peptide Bond: Links bonds. amino acids in a chain. ○​ Example Functions: ​ Movement: Actin Chemical Reactions and myosin in muscles. A chemical reaction involves ​ Transport: reactants (substances that start the Hemoglobin in red reaction) and products (new blood cells. substances formed). 4.​ Nucleic Acids: Made of nucleotides. DNA and RNA store genetic information. Catalysts: Week 4 - 5 ​ ​ Definition: Substances that ​ speed up a chemical reaction Chemical Changes and Collision without being consumed. Theory ​ Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution: A graph showing the energy distribution of  particles in a system. It shows ​ Limiting Reactant: The how many particles have reactant that is completely used sufficient energy to overcome up first, determining the the activation energy needed amount of product formed. for a reaction. ​ Excess Reagents: Reactants that are not fully used up by the end of the reaction. Factors Affecting the Rate of Stoichiometry: Chemical Reactions: ​ Establishes mole and mass 1.​ Activation Energy: relationships between reactants ○​ Minimum energy needed and products to determine the for a reaction to occur. quantity of products produced 2.​ Temperature: in a reaction. ○​ Higher temperature increases particle movement, leading to more collisions and faster reactions. 3.​ Concentration: ○​ More particles per Steps in Solving Stoichiometric volume leads to more Calculations: frequent collisions, speeding up the reaction. 4.​ Surface Area: ○​ Greater surface area allows more particles to be exposed and react, speeding up the reaction. Limiting Reactants & Products Formation Energy Forms and Power Plants 2.​ Solar Power: Energy from sunlight. Energy: ​ Example: ​ The ability to do work and Calatagan Solar exists in different forms like Farm (Batangas) electrical and chemical energy. 3.​ Wind Power: Energy from wind. ​ Example: Bangui Windmills (Ilocos Norte) Power Plants: 4.​ Geothermal: Energy from the Earth's heat. ​ Facilities that generate ​ Example: electricity by converting Malitbog primary energy into electrical Geothermal Power energy. Common sources Station (Leyte) include: 5.​ Biomass: Energy from ○​ Coal, Natural Gas, organic materials like Renewable Resources plants and animals. ​ Example: San Carlos Biopower Renewable vs. Non-Renewable (Negros Resources Occidental) Renewable Resources: Non-Renewable Resources: ​ Sources that can be ​ Resources that cannot be replenished naturally. replenished quickly Examples include: 1.​ Coal 1.​ Hydroelectric Power: 2.​ Oil Energy from flowing 3.​ Natural Gas water. These are primarily used for ​ Example: Pulanai generating electricity. Hydropower Plant (Bukidnon) ​ Goodluck!!