Reviewer In General Biology 2 (3rd Quarter) PDF

REVIEWER IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 (3rd Quarter) GENETIC ENGINEERING It is the manipulation of DNA from 2 AND BIOTECHNOLOGY sources. GENETIC ENGINEERING...

REVIEWER IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 (3rd Quarter) GENETIC ENGINEERING It is the manipulation of DNA from 2 AND BIOTECHNOLOGY sources. GENETIC ENGINEERING Bacterial DNA + human gene for insulin It is a technology that involves Plant DNA + bacterial DNA manipulating the DNA of one organism in order to insert the DNA of another Mouse DNA + human DNA = transgenic organism, called exogenous DNA. It is process by which an individual’s RECOMBINANT DNA genome is deliberately modified. The splicing of genes from one organism into another, results in a new form of Genetically engineered organisms are used to: DNA. Organisms with these genetic features are called genetically modified study the expression of a particular organism (GMO) or transgenic organism. gene. investigate cellular processes. RECOMBINATION study the development of a certain Insert a foreign gene into a host. disease. GOAL: to produce many copies (clones) select traits that might be beneficial to of a particular gene. humans. TRANSGENIC BIOTECHNOLOGY It typically contains genes from at least it is the use of living cells to make one unrelated organism, which could be products such as pharmaceuticals, food a virus, a bacterium, a fungus, a plant, or and beverages. an animal. the use of organisms such as bacteria to protect the environment. How are Transgenic Organism Created? the use of DNA science for the production of materials for diagnostics To make a genetically modified and research. organism, three main elements are required: Biotechnology helps to meet our basic needs: food, clothing, shelter, health and The DNA sequence that codes for the safety. desire’s protein. A vector to transfer the DNA sequence into another genome; and RECOMBINANT DNA  REVIEWER IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 (3rd Quarter) The genome of the target species where Applications in Medicine and Research the DNA sequence will be inserted into. In medicine, genetic engineering has been used to mass-produce insulin, human growth hormones, follistim (for VECTORS treating infertility), human albumin, A vector is an entity that transmits a monoclonal antibodies, antihemophilic disease or parasite form one animal or factors, vaccines, and many other drugs. plant to another. THE HUMAN GENOME PROJECT PLASMID The Human Genome Project (HGP) was It’s a circular piece of DNA, Bacteria the international, collaborative research natural trade them around between program aimed to complete the each other. sequencing and mapping of the entire genome of Homo Sapiens. The plasmids we use for genetic engineering usually have this sort of stuff on them. It was documented in three ways: The sequence of all the bases in the VIRUS genome. It is an effective agent that typically The maps that show locations of the consists of a nucleic acid molecule in a genes in the genome. protein coat, is too small to be seen by Linkage maps that track inherited traits light microscopy, and is able to multiply over generations. only within the living cells of a host. About 20, 500 human genes were sequenced and mapped by the HGP. Applications in Agriculture and Industry Some applications are outline below: Scientists can use genetic engineering Genetic Analysis (use to classify disease to increase crop yields, lower food costs, such as colon cancer and lung cancer improve food quality, food security, and into more specific categories) medicinal value. All of this is possible Newborn Screening (one of the with genetic engineering in agricultural predictive tests that checks for medical crops, as scientists can change the genes conditions in babies). Phenylketonuria is of crops to meet all of the above included in the screening so that requirements. diagnosed infants may be fed with a proper diet to prevent mental retardation. BT CORN IN THE PHILIPPINES  REVIEWER IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 (3rd Quarter) GENE THERAPY Gene therapy is a technique that uses a SPECIAL CREATION gene(s) to treat, prevent or cure a This long-standing creationist theory disease or medical disorder. Often, gene assumes that a supernatural being such therapy works by adding new copies of a as a divine God is responsible for gene that is broken, or by replacing a creating life. “Life may have been placed defective or missing gene in a patient's on earth by supernatural or divine cells with a healthy version of that gene. forces. The first gene therapy was in 1990 with the treatment for severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). Infants with PANSPERMIA SCID lack lymphocytes and are unable to mount an immune response. It suggested that life may have been carried to earth by beings of In this first case, the white blood cells extraterrestrial origin. “Life may have were removed from the body of the been seeded by life forms from another patient, inserted with the missing gene planet”. and then replaced back into the blood stream. SPONTANEOUS ORIGIN PHARMACOGENOMICS Also known as the biogeochemical Pharmacogenomics (sometimes called theory, this is accepted by most scientist pharmacogenetics) is a field of research that studies how a person's genes affect as it is the theory that can be thoroughly how he or she responds to medications. tested for confirmation. It refers to the Its long-term goal is to help doctors phenomenon that life evolved from inorganic and inanimate matter. select the drugs and doses best suited for each person. OPARIN-HALDANE HYPOTHESIS HISTORY OF LIFE ON EARTH Suggests that life arose gradually from inorganic molecules, with “building blocks” like amino acids forming first and HOW DID LIFE BEGIN? then combining to make complex polymers. This served as the basis for the There are three possibilities that have Miller-Urey Experiment. been either supported or refuted by many scientists. Miller-Urey Experiment Special Creation The heat from the boiling flask and the spark from the power supply in the Panspermia atmospheric flask have given the Spontaneous Origin necessary boost or starting point for organic compounds to materialize in the  REVIEWER IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 (3rd Quarter) experiment. The experiment yielded photosynthesis to obtain food and the amino acids and complex organic lower layer uses the top layers by materials throughout the process. This product to survive. experiment showed that high chemical Another line of shreds of evidence is the energy from chemical interaction and microfossils found in western Australia. heat are needed for such a process to These are fossils that were first thought take place. to be minerals, but later studies using advanced techniques of dating and investigation proved that these are TRACING EARLIEST LIFE FORM fossils of microbes who have lived 3.5 Organic Compounds- these are billion years ago. molecules linked with life and developed through reactions between atmospheric processes and the watery area of Earth. DATING TECHNIQUES RNA- the resulting molecule when ABSOLUTE DATING organic compounds self-assembled into It is techniques use in obtaining the a self-replicating molecule. actual age of the fossils and rock through Pre-cells- resulted when self-replicating radiometric dating or the use of the RNA enclosed itself in a membrane to concept of half-life and the radioactive protect itself from the outside decay of elements. environment. Primitive Cells- these are pre-cells with RELATIVE DATING improved function through the process of evolution. It is use in obtaining the relative age of the rocks or samples, it does not tell the Modern Cell- as the cells choose to fit actual age but only uses some principles itself for survival, it develops into a of comparison which are as follows. structure which is familiar to us today, a cell with a DNA genome. a. Law of Superposition- which states that the youngest rocks are found on top of the layers and the oldest rocks are found in bottom. STROMATOLITES b. Law of Original Horizontality- sedimentation Another piece of evidence that scientist or layering of the rocks occur horizontally; if discovered is the stromatolites or tilting, breaking, or folding of rocks or its layer “living” rock samples that scientist has occur it happened recently after the horizontal discovered and dated to age up to 3.5 layering. billion years old. c. Law of Cross-Cutting Relationship- if the rocks These are rock formations identical to a under investigation have a cut from igneous rock living mat of microbes. They have layers intrusions, then the intrusions or fault breaks are of microbes and sediments. Scientists younger than the rock being investigated. found out that the topmost layer used  REVIEWER IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 (3rd Quarter) Triassic- first dinosaur and first mammal in the form of rodent appear. GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE Jurassic- “golden age of dinosaur” What is Geologic Time Scale? Cretaceous- when the mass extinction It is a representation of the life forms and demise of dinosaurs and the 25% of that have lived and dominated the Earth marine life marked the end of the on a specific time scale. Geologic is the Mesozoic era and the appearance of the combination of the word geologic and first primates and snakes marked the chronologic, which means rock and time, start of Cenozoic era. respectively. EPOCHS (Tertiary Period) Geologic Time Scale is divided into following partitions: Paleocene- first horse appear Eon- largest division of the geologic time Eocene- grasses spread and large scale; spans hundreds to thousands of mammals such as elephants and rhinos million years ago (mya). developed. Oligocene- dogs, cats, and apes appear. Era- division in an era that span time Miocene- horses and tigers dominate periods of tens to hundreds of millions of the land. years. Pliocene- hominids or the bipedal apes Period- a division of geologic history that developed. spans no more than one hundred million years. Epoch- the smallest division of the EPOCHS (Quaternary Period) geologic time scale characterized by Pleistocene- is the modern humans distinctive organisms. develop; this is the ice age because ice sheets predominate during this epoch. MAJOR ERAS Holocene- is the epoch where humans flourish and dominate the earth Paleozoic- “age of invertebrates” “present earth”. Mesozoic- “age of reptiles” Cenozoic- “age of the mammals” NOTABLE PERIODS THEORIES OF EVOLUTION Devonian- age of the fishes  REVIEWER IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 (3rd Quarter) Evolution theory of evolution by natural selection became the foundation of It is the process of gradual modern evolutionary studies. developmental modification so as to establish diversity and complexity in the Postulates of Lamarckism living world or it states that the present- INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED day complex plants and animals have CHARACTERISTIC - He believed that the evolved from earlier simpler forms of life favorable acquired characters are by gradual changes. inheritable and transmitted to the Evolution composes of three types which offsprings so that they are born fit to are microevolution, macroevolution, and adjust in the new environment. lastly is megaevolution. NEW NEEDS - Changes in environmental factors like light, temperature, food, air or migration leads to origin of new needs TYPES OF EVOLUTION in living organisms. To fulfill this, living MICROEVOLUTION: It is the evolution of organisms have to exert special effort sub species or geographic races. like change in habitat or behavior. MACROEVOLUTION: It is the evolution USE AND DISUSE OF ORGANS - The new of species and general higher categories. habitats include greater use of certain organ to meet the new needs and disuse MEGAEVOLUTION: It is for large scale of certain organs that are not required in evolution, operating at the level of the environment. families, orders, classes, and phyla. SUMMARY OF POSTULATES OF LAMARCKISM THEORIES OF EVOLUTION Living organisms or their concept parts Lamarckism or Theory of Inheritance of tend to increase in size. Acquired Characteristic Production of new organ is resulted from Darwinism or Theory of Natural a new need. Selection Continued use of an organ makes it more Jean-Baptiste Lamarck - was a developed, while disuse of an organ pioneering French biologist who is best results in degeneration. known for his idea that acquired characters are inheritable, an idea Acquired characteristic (modifications) known as Lamarckism, which is developed by individuals during their controverted by own lifetime are inheritable and modern genetics and evolutionary accumulate over a period of time theory. resulting a new species. Charles Darwin - was an English naturalist whose scientific EVIDENCES IN FAVOUR OF LAMARCKISM  REVIEWER IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 (3rd Quarter) Phylogenetic studies of horse, elephant GEOMETRIC INCREASE - states that a and other animals shows all these population's size increases increase in their evolution from single to exponentially, or geometrically. This complex forms. means that the population doubles after a certain amount of time. Giraffe LIMITED FOOD AND SPACE - causes Snakes- Development of present-day organisms to compete for survival, which limbless snakes with long slender body leads to natural selection and evolution. from the limbed ancestors due to continued disuse of limbs and stretching of their body to suit their creeping mode VARIATIONS - refers to the differences in of locomotion. It is an example of disuse physical traits between individuals of the and degeneration of certain organs. same species. These differences can be Aquatic Birds- Development of aquatic in appearance or in functional traits like birds like ducks, geese, etc. from their disease resistance. terrestrial ancestors by the acquired characteristic like reduction of wings due to their continued disuse, Adaptation- Individuals who best adapt developmental webs between their toes to the environment are the ones who for wadding purposes. will most likely survive. Flightless Birds- Development of flightless birds like ostrich from flying ancestors due to continued disuse of Speciation- The process in which new wings as these were found in well genetically distinct species evolve protected areas with plenty of food. usually as a result of genetic isolation from the main population. Main Postulates of Darwinism Mechanisms and Evidences of Evolution SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST - the process by which organisms with favorable traits Natural Selection are more likely to survive and reproduce, Genetic Drift passing on those traits to their offspring. This process is also known as Mutation "survival of the fittest". Gene Flow Theory on Descent with modification – NATURAL SELECTION species has descended and change overtime. Natural Selection leads to evolutionary change when some individuals with NATURAL SELECTION – process through certain traits in a population have a which populations of living organisms higher survival and reproductive rate adapt and change. than others and pass on these  REVIEWER IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 (3rd Quarter) inheritable genetic features to their offspring. The organisms having the most applicable characteristics for the environment survive and those who not decrease in number. Also known as “SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST”. GENETIC DRIFT It is a random event that happens by chance in nature that influences or changes alleles frequency within a population as a result of sampling error from generation. It may happen that some alleles are completely lost within a generation due to genetic drift, even if they are beneficial traits that conduct to evolutionary and reproductive success. MUTATION It can be defined as a change in the DNA sequence within a gene or chromosome of a living organisms. Many mutations are neutral wherein they can neither harm nor benefit, but can also be deleterious or beneficial. GENE FLOW Population genetics, gene flow (also known as gene migration) refers to the transfer of genes from the gene pool of one population to another. Gene flow may change the frequency and/or range of alleles in the populations due to the migration of individuals or gametes that can reproduce in a different population.