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RGO Psychology Review Center Developmental Psychology Notes Prepared by Patrick Gutierrez, RPm, RPsy Introduction to Developmental Psychology Meaning of Developmental Changes Human Development – the systematic study of processes of change and stability throughout the life span. Systematic – coher...

RGO Psychology Review Center Developmental Psychology Notes Prepared by Patrick Gutierrez, RPm, RPsy Introduction to Developmental Psychology Meaning of Developmental Changes Human Development – the systematic study of processes of change and stability throughout the life span. Systematic – coherent and organized Adaptive – It is aimed at dealing with internal and external conditions of existence. Which characteristics are most likely to endure? Which characteristics are most likely to change, and why? 4 Goals of Human Development 1. Description – What are these behaviors? 2. Explanation – Why do they behave such? 3. Prediction – What will they do? 4. Intervention – What should we do, as psychologists, to/for them? Domains of Development 1. Physical development 2. Cognitive Development 3. Psychosocial Development Periods of Life Span 1. Pre-natal Period (conception to birth) 2. Infancy and Toddlerhood (birth to age 3) 3. Early Childhood (age 3 to 6) 4. Middle Childhood (age 6 to 11) 5. Adolescence (age 11 to 20) 6. Young Adulthood (age 20 to 40) 7. Middle Adulthood (age 40 to 65) 8. Late Adulthood (age 65 and over) Prenatal Period – Physical Development - Conception occurs by normal fertilization or other means. - Genetic endowment. - Body structures and organs form; brain growth spurt begins. - Physical growth is the most rapid in the life span. - Vulnerability to environmental influence is great. Prenatal Period – Cognitive Development - Abilities to learn and remember and to respond to sensory stimuli are developing. Prenatal Period – Psychosocial Development - Fetus responds to mother's voice and develops a preference for it. Infancy and Toddlerhood – Physical Development - All senses and body systems operate at birth to varying degrees. - The brain grows in complexity and is highly sensitive to environmental influences. - Physical growth and development of motor skills are rapid. Infancy and Toddlerhood – Cognitive Development - Abilities to learn and remember are present. - Use of symbols and ability to solve problems develop by end of the second year. - Comprehension and use of language develop rapidly. Infancy and Toddlerhood – Psychosocial Development - Attachments to parents and others are formed. - Self-awareness develops. - Shift from dependence toward autonomy occurs. - Interest in other children increase. Early Childhood – Physical Development -Growth is steady; appearance becomes more slender and proportions more adultlike. - Appetite diminishes, and sleep problems are common. - Handedness appears; fine and gross motor skills and strength improve. Early Childhood – Cognitive Development - Thinking is somewhat egocentric, but understanding of other people's perspective grows. - Cognitive immaturity results in some illogical ideas about the world. - memory and language improve. - Intelligence becomes more predictable. - Preschool experience is common, and kindergarten experience is more so. Early Childhood – Psychosocial Development - Self concept and understanding of emotions become more complex; self esteem is global. - independence, initiative, and self- control increase. - Gender identity develops. - Play becomes more imaginative, more elaborate, and usually more social. - Altruism, aggression, and fearfulness are common. - Family is still the focus of social life, but other children become more important. Middle Childhood – Physical Development - Growth slows - Strength and athletic skills improve. - Respiratory illness are common, but health is generally better than at any other time in the lifespan. Middle Childhood – Cognitive Development - Egocentrism deminishes. Children begin to think logically but concretely. - Memory and language skills increase. - Cognitive gains permit children to benefit from formal schooling. - Some children show special educational needs and strengths. Middle Childhood – Psychosocial Development - Self – concept becomes more complex affecting self-esteem. - Coregulation reflects gradual shift in control from parents to child. - Peers assure central importance. Adolescence – Physical Development - Physical growth and other changes are rapid and profound. - Reproductive maturity occurs. - Major health risks arise from behavioral issues, such as eating disorders and drug abuse. Adolescence – Cognitive Development - Ability to think abstractly and use scientific reasoning develops. - Immature thinking persists in some attitudes and behaviors. - Education focuses on preparation for college or vocation. Adolescence – Psychosocial Development - Search for identity including sexual identity, becomes central. - Relationships with parents are generally good. - Peer group may exert a positive or negative influence. Young Adulthood – Physical Development - Physical condition peaks, then declines slightly. - Lifestyle choices influence health. Young Adulthood – Cognitive Development - Thought and moral judgements become more complex. - Educational and occupational choices are made, sometimes after period of exploration. Young Adulthood – Psychosocial Development - Personality traits and styles become relatively stable, but changes in personality may be influenced by life stages and events. - Intimate relationships and personal lifestyle are established but may not be lasting. - Most people marry, and most become parents. Middle Adulthood – Physical Development - Slow deterioration of sensory abilities, health, stamina, and strength may begin, but individual differences are wide. - Women experience menopause. Middle Adulthood – Cognitive Development - Mental abilities peak; expertise and practical problem-solving skills are high. - Creative output may decline but improve in quality. - For some, career success and earning power peak; for others, burnout or career change may occur. Middle Adulthood – Psychosocial Development - Sense of identity continues to develop; middle transition may occur. - Dual responsibilities of caring for children and parents may cause stress. - Launching of children leaves empty nest. Late Adulthood – Physical Development - Most people are healthy and active, although health physical abilities generally decline. - Slowing of reaction time affects some aspects of functioning. Late Adulthood – Cognitive Development - Most people are mentally alert. - Although intelligence and memory may deteriorate in some areas, most people find ways to compensate. Late Adulthood – Psychosocial Development - Retirement form workforce may occur and may offer new options for use of time. - People develop more flexible strategies to cope with personal losses and impending death. - Relationship with family and close friends can provide important support. - Search for meaning for life assumes central importance. Influences on Development Individual differences – Difference in characteristics, influence, or developmental outcomes. Heredity – Inborn traits or characteristics inherited from the biological parents. Environment – Totality of nonhereditary, or experiential, influences on development. Maturation – Unfolding of a natural sequence of physical and behavioral changes. How do heredity and environment interact? Which developments are maturational? What are the influences that affect many or most people at a certain age? Contexts of Development 1. Family a. Nuclear – Two-generational kinship, economic, and household of one or two parents and their biological/ adopted/ step children. b. Extended – Multi-generational kinship of parents, children, and relatives living together in an extended family household. Contexts of Development 2. Socioeconomic Status (SES) and Neighborhood a. Socioeconomic Status - Combination of economic and social factors describing an individual or family, including income, education, and occupation. b. Neighborhood – individuals around a person, especially the non relatives. Contexts of Development 3. Culture and Race/ Ethnicity a. Culture – A society's or group's total way of life, including customs, traditions, beliefs, values, language, and physical products – all learned behavior, passed on from parents to children. b. Ethnic Group – A group united by ancestry, race, religion, language, and/or national origins, which contribute to a sense of shared identity. 4. Historical Context - The generation where a person lives affects his development. Normative and Non normative Influences Normative – Characteristic of an event that occurs in a similar way for most people in a group. a. Age graded influences – influences related to age. b. History graded influences – significant environmental events that shape the behavior and attitudes of an age cohort. Developmental Theories Psychosexual Development Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939)– an Austrian Psychologist; Father of psychoanalysis. He believe that the changes where due to inner forces, especially biological maturation. Famous Theories related to DP: 1. Levels of the mind 2. Structure of the Personality 3. Psychosexual Development Levels of the Consciousness 1. Conscious – Fully aware; immediate. 2. Preconscious – The area where unconscious information are easily brought about. 3. Unconscious – Repressed feelings, thoughts, and memories. Structure of the Mind 1. Id – guided by pleasure principle; existed since birth; illogical; has no morality; operates the primary process(gratification of urges). 2. Ego – guided by reality principle; existed since infancy (when the infant is able to distinguish themselves from the outer world) operates the secondary process (to bring into contact to reality). 3. Superego – guided by moral principle; existed since the child was indoctrinated by moral values form the parent; has no contact to reality since the desire is perfection; controls the id. Psychosexual Development Fixation – A characteristic from an early stage of life which still exists until adulthood. It happens if there is too much gratification or frustration of a need. Regression – a defense mechanism which makes the person return for a moment to an early effective way to avoid anxiety. Psychosexual Development 1. Infantile Period a. Oral Phase (0 – 1 ½ yrs.) – baby's chief source of pleasure involves the mouth oriented activities. Too much gratification may lead to oral aggressiveness Ex. too much eating, talkative, kissing, gossips etc. b. Anal Phase (1 ½ – 3 yrs.) – The child derives the sensual gratification form withholding and expelling feces. Zone of gratification is anal region, and toilet training is important activity. Anal expulsive - if a child fights back over toilet training, they develop such character. ex. a person who loves to spend, expressive Anal compulsive – if feces was disgusted, the person becomes either stingy or over clean. Ex. a person who is stingy, or someone who harbors resentment. Overly clean individuals. c. Phallic Phase (3 to 6 yrs.)– Child becomes attached to parent of the opposite sex, and later identifies with the same-sex parent. Super ego develops. Zone of gratification shifts to genitals. Oedipus Complex – Erotic love of son to his mother. It, then, is followed by castration anxiety making the superego of men stronger. Penis Envy – Erotic love of a daughter to his father, after being hostile to his mother for making her without a penis, but, later, without any anxiety giving up the desire, thus, giving her a weaker superego. Psychosexual Development 2. Latency Period (6 yrs – puberty) – the sexual desire is repressed because they are discouraged by the parents. The psychic energy is directed to school, hobbies, friendship, and other non sexual activities. 3. Genital Period (puberty to adulthood) – Reemergence of sexual impulses of phallic stage, channelled into mature adult sexuality. Psychosocial Development Erik Erickson Epigenesis – Unfolding to stages Psychosocial Development 1. Trust vs. Mistrust (birth to 12 – 18 months) 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (12 – 18 months) 3. Initiative vs, Guilt (3 to 6 years) 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to puberty) 5. Identity vs. Indentity Confusion (puberty to young adulthood) 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood) 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood) 8. Intergrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood) Infancy Crisis: Basic trust and Mistrust Virtue: Hope - Baby develops sense of whether the world is a good or a safe place. Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Virtue: Will - Child develops a balance of independence and self-sufficiency over shame and doubt. Crisis: Initiative vs. Guilt Virtue: Purpose - develops initiative when trying out new activities and is not overwhelmed by guilt. Crisis: Industry vs. Inferiority Virtue: Skill - Child must learn skills of culture or face feelings of incompetence. Crisis: Identity vs. Identity Confusion Virtue: Fidelity - Adolescent must determine a sense of self or experience confusion about roles. Crisis: Intimacy vs. Isolation Virtue: Love - Person seeks to make commitments to others; if unsuccessful, may suffer from isolation and self-absorption. Crisis: Generativity vs. Stagnation Virtue: Care - Mature adults is concerned with establishing and guiding the next generation or else feels personal impoverishment. Crisis: Integrity vs. Despair Virtue: Wisdom - Older adult achieves acceptance of own life, allowing acceptance of death, or else despairs over inability to relive life. Cognitive Stages Jean Piaget 1. Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years) 2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years) 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years) 4. Formal Operations (11 years through adulthood) Sensorimotor Stage - Infant gradually becomes able to organize activities in relation to the environment through sensory and motor activity. Preoperational Stage - Child develops a representational system and uses symbols to represent people, places, and events. Language and imaginative play are important manifestations of this stage. - Thinking is still not logical. Concrete Operational Stage - Child can solve problems logically if they are focused on the here and now but cannot think abstractly. Formal Operational Stage - Person can think abstractly, deal with hypothetical situations, and think about possibilities. Life Formation Fertilization/ Conception – union of sperm and ovum to produce a zygote. Gametes – sex cells Zygote – One-celled organism resulting from fertilization. Women usually has 2 million immature sex cells, which in every after 28 days Multiple Births Monozygotic twins – twins from the division of one zygote. They have identical genes and they are also called identical twins. Dizygotic twins – twins from two zygotes. They are genetically different. We also call them fraternal twins. Mechanisms of Heredity Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – Chemical that carries inherited instructions for the development of all cellular forms of life. Chemical units(Bases) 1.Thymine paired with Adenine 2. Guanine paired with Cytosine There are about 3 billion pairs per DNA Genetic Code – Sequence of bases within the DNA molecule; Governs the formation of proteins that determine the structure and functions of living cells. Chromosomes – bundles of genes; all cells in the body except the gametes have 23 pairs of chromosomes. 23 from the father and another 23 from the mother forming the 23 pairs. Sex Determiner Autosomes – 22 pairs of chromosomes that are not related to sexual expression. Sex Chromosome – 23rd chromosome which determines the sex. The ovum carries an X sex chromosome. The sperm carries either an X or Y sex chromosome. During fertilization, if X chromosome is paired with another X chromosome, then XX (female) will be formed. Otherwise, if X is paired with Y, then XY (male) will be formed Patterns of Genetic Transmission Gregor Mendell – father of genetics discovered the dominant and recessive inheritance. Allele – the expression of a characteristic of a gene. Dominant Inheritance – The presence of a dominant allele can make the person inherit a trait. Recessive Inheritance – The absence of a dominant allele can make the person inherit a trait which usually cannot be seen to the parent. Heredity and Environment Interaction: The Nature - Nurture Debate Behavior Genetics Heredity-Environment Correlations Shared and Nonshared Environmental Experiences Epigenetic View Characteristics Influenced by Heredity and Environment Behavioral Genetics - Quantitative study of relative hereditary and environmental influences on behavior. - Seeks to determine the difference among people because of the differences on their environment, genes, and combination of these. Heritability – Statistical estimate of contribution of heredity to individual differences in a specific trait within a given population. It is expressed as a number ranging from 0.0 to 1.0 with 1.0 as the highest, which means that the behavior is 100% due to the genes. How do we actually study Genetics? Family studies – if there is a strong correlation among the traits within the family, therefore it may due to heredity. Ex. Obesity in the family Adoption studies – separates the environmental from genetic influence. It investigates for similarities of the adopted child to his adopted parents or to his biological parents. Twin studies – the behavioral similarity of identical and fraternal twins are compared. How do we they work together? 1. Reaction Range 2. Canalization 3. Genotype-Environment Interaction 4. Genotype-Environment Correlation Reaction Range - It is the potential expression of a hereditary trait. ex. Body size depends on biological processes, which are genetically regulated. But it all depends on the environmental opportunities and constraints and the person's behavior. - Genetics has limits. ex. Height – we don't see people less than one foot or more than 10 feet. Canalization - Certain behaviors develop along genetically dug channels but they are altered because of an extreme change in environment. Ex. A child can walk earlier if they are trained to walk than those who were not trained. A child can develop his/her communication skills faster if they were encouraged to talk back than those who were ignored. Genotype-Environment Interaction - It is the effect of similar environmental conditions on genetically different individuals. ex. Many people are exposed to pollen and dust, but only a portion of them developed allergic reactions. In a longitudinal study, a short form of a certain genotype are more likely to develop antisocial personality after they had been maltreated as a children than those with the long form of the same genotype. Genotype-Environment Correlation - Genetic and environmental influences are in the same direction. ex. a child whose parents love music, chooses a music lover friends. 3 Ways of Correlation Passive Correlations - The environment was created by the biological parent of the same trait. It is considered passive because the child doesn't have control over the condition. ex. A music lover parent creates a home where music is regularly heard. The tendency is that the child would love music as well. Reactive/Evocative Correlations - The environment was created by the parent to support the early signs of dispositions. - It is called reactive because the parent reacts to the genetic make-up of the child. Ex. A parent who is not musically inclined, enrolls his/her child to a music academy because the child has an inclination to it. Active Correlation The person seeks an environment that is compatible to his genotype. It is also called niche-picking. ex. A group of adolescent with a genotype inclined with music puts up a band. Shared and Nonshared Environmental Experience Shared Environmental Experience – parent's personalities and intellectual orientation, the families socio-economic status. Nonshared Environmental Experiences – The child's own unique experiences, both within the family and outside the family, that are not shared by another sibling. SEE are less influential than NEE. Eventhough we live with our siblings in the same house, we still develop different personalities. Epigenetic View Emphasizes that development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment. ex. Toxins, nutrition, and stress influence some genes either to stop functioning, become weaker, or stronger during prenatal period. But during the infancy stage, the same environment modifies the genetic activity and the activity of the NS that directly underlies behavior. Characteristics Influenced by Heredity and Environment Physiological Traits Intelligence Personality and Psychopathology Temperament Schizophrenia Chromosomal Abnormalities Description Alpha, Antitrypsin deficiency (chromosome 14) Enzyme deficiency that can lead to cirrhosis of the liver and emphysema and degenerative disease in middle age. Alpha Thalassemia (chromosome 16) Severe anemia that reduces ability of the blood to carry oxygen; nearly all affected infants are stillborn or die soon after birth Beta Thalassemia (Cooley's anemia) (chromosome 11) Severe anemia resulting in weakness, fatigue, and frequent illness; usually fatal in adolescence or young adulthood. Cystic Fibrosis (chromosome 7) Overproduction of mucus, which collects in the lung and digestive tract; children do not grow normally and usually do not live beyond age 30; the most common inherited lethal defect among white people. Duchenne Muscular Dysthropy (X sex chromosome) Fatal disease usually found in males, marked by muscle weakness; minor mental retardation is common; respiratory failure and death usually occur in young adulthood. Hemophilia (X sex chromosome) Ecessive bleeding; usually affecting males; in its most severe form, can lead to crippling arthritis in adulthood. Anencephaly Absence of brain tissues; infants are stillborn or die soon after birth. Spina Bifida (chromosome 11) Incompletely closed spinal canal, resulting to muscle weakness or paralysis and loss of bladder and bowel control; often accompanied by hydrocephalus, an accumulation of spinal fluid in the brain, which can lead to mental retardation. Phenylketonuria (PKU) Metabolic disorder resulting in mental retardation. Polycystic Kidney disease Infantile form: Enlarged kidneys, leading to respiratory problems and congestive heart failure. Adult form: Kidney pain, kidney stones, and hypertension resulting in chronic kidney failure. Sickle cell Anemia Deformed, fragile red blood cells that can clog the blood vessels, depriving the body oxygen; symptoms include severe pain, stunted growth, frequent infections, leg ulcers, gallstones, susceptibility to pneumonia, and stroke. Tay-Sachs Disease Degenerative disease of the brain and nerve cells, resulting in death before age 5. Sex Chromosome Abnormalities Disorder Description XYY Male; tall structure; tendency to low IQ, especially verbal XXX(triple X) Female; normal appearance, menstrual irregularities, learning disorders, mental retardation XXY(Kleinfelter's Syndrome) Male; sterility, underdeveloped secondary sex characteristics, small testes, learning disorder XO (Turner) Female; short stature, webbed neck, impaired spatial abilities, no menstruation, infertility, underdeveloped sex organs, incomplete development of secondary sex characteristics. Fragile X Minor to severe mental retardation; symptoms which are more severe in males, include delayed speech and motor development, speech impairments, and hyperactivity; the most common inherited form of mental retardation. Gestation – Period of development between conception and birth. Gestational Age – Age of an unborn baby, usually dated from the first day of an expectant mother's last menstrual cycle. 38 – 42 normal range of gestation. Stages of Prenatal Development 1. Germinal Stage (Fertilization – 2 weeks) - the zygote divides, becomes more complex, and is implanted in the wall of the uterus. The fertilized ovum's travel from the fallopian tube to the uterus 36 hours – the zygote enters a period of rapid cell division and duplication. 72 hours – 16 – 32 cells 96 hours (4days) – 64 cells Blastocyst – a fluid filled sphere form of the divided cell. It consists of hundreds of cell. 6 – 7 days – blastocyst attaches itself to the uterine wall 10 days – blastocyst joined the uterine wall Embryonic Disk – located on one edge of the blastocyst. Parts of the embryonic disk Ectoderm – becomes the outer layer of the skin, nails, teeth, hair, sensory organs, and nervous system Endoderm – becomes the digestive system, liver, pancreas, salivary glands, and respiratory system Mesoderm – becomes the middle layer of the skin, muscles, skeleton, and excretory and circulatroy system Other parts of the blastocyst Amiotic sac – fluid filled membrane that encases the developing embryo, protecting it and giving it room to move and grow. Placenta – allows oxygen, nourishment, and wastes to pass between mother and embryo. It also helps combat infections. Umbilical cord – connects the placenta and the embryo. 2. Embryonic Stage (2 – 8 weeks) - the organs and major body systems (respiratory, digestive, and nervous) develop rapidly. Spontaneous abortion – Natural expulsion from the uterus of an embryo that cannot survive outside the womb; also called miscarriage. 3. Fetal Stage (8 weeks to birth) - Characterized by increased differentiation of body parts and greatly enlarged body size. - fetus are able to breathe, kick, turn, flex their bodies, do somersaults, squint, swallow, make fists, hiccup, and suck their thumbs. 12th week – the child is able to breathe and swallow, which in turn, partake in the development of digestive and respiratory system. 14th week – taste and olfactory system develop. 26th week - the fetus is able to respond to sound and vibration and reaches a plateau at about 32nd week. Fetuses can respond to the mother's voice and the vibration of her body, suggesting that they can hear and feel. Environmental Influences: Maternal Factor Teratogenic – Factors that are capable of causing birth defects. 1. Nutrition and Maternal Weight Weight gain during pregnancy 16 – 40 pounds gain – less likely to have birth complications GAIN TOO MUCH – delivered by Cesarean section NOT GAIN ENOUGH – growth retardation in the womb, or to be born prematurely or very small, or to die at or near birth. Weight before pregnancy OBESITY – risk of birth defect, complications of pregnancy, miscarriage, and difficulty of labor. What an expectant mother eat DHA (omega 3 fatty acid) – babies showed more mature sleep, a sign of advanced brain development. Folic acid/ folate (B vitamin) – less of these can get the baby acquire anencephaly or spina bifida. 5 milligrams of folic acid each day before pregnancy and during the first trimeste, an estimate of 85% of neural tube defects could be prevented. 2. Malnutrition Mothers who had low vitamin D levels late in pregnancy have higher tendency to have a baby who will develop osteoporosis in later life. Malnourished women who take dietary supplement during pregnancy tend to have bigger, healthier, more active, and more visually alert babies. 3. Drug Intake Medical Drugs – antibiotic tetracycline; certain barbiturates, opiates, and other CNS depressants; hormones including diethylstilbestrol and androgens; certain anti cancer drugs, such as methotrexate Accutane, a drug for severe acne Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and nonsteroidal anti-inflamatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as Naproxen and Ibuprofen Antipsychotic drugs Alcohol Fetal Alcohol Syndrome – Combination of mental, motor, and developmental abnormalities affecting the offspring of some women who drink heavily during pregnancy. Nicotine Smoking may cause babies to have low birth weight (less than 5 ½ pounds at birth). Tobacco use may lead to miscarriage, growth retardation, stillbirth, small head circumference, colic (uncontrollable, extended crying for no apparent reason), hyperkinetic disorder, and long term respiratory, neurological, cognitive, and behavioral problems. 2nd hand smoke can cause cognitive development impairment. Caffeine – less intake of caffeine is tolerable but 2 cups or more a day would affect the child's growth. Marijuana, Cocaine, and Methamphetamine Marijuana – may affect the frontal lobe functioning of the baby. Cocaine – spontaneous abortion, low birth weight, birth defects, and impaired neurological disorder Methamphetamine – fetal growth restriction 4. Maternal Illness AIDS – perinatal transmission occur Rubella (German Measles) if contracted before 11th week, it would cause deafness and heart defects in the baby. Toxoplasmosis – an infection caused by parasites in animal's bodies, can cause fetal brain damage, severely impaired eyesight, or miscarriage. Diabetes – High glucose levels deprive embryos from oxygen. 4. Maternal Anxiety and Stress moderate level of anxiety encourages motor and mental development more than those who had low levels of anxiety. On the other hand, self reported anxiety during pregnancy has been associated with an 8 month old's inattentiveness and preschooler's negative emotionality or behavioral disorders in early childhood. 5. Maternal Age women at 45 and above – 90% miscarriage risk Adolescent mothers – tend to have premature or underweight babies 6. Outside Environmental Hazards Inhalation of fine combustion particles – may cause the babies to be premature and undersized. Exposure to chemical related work – may have twice rate of miscarriage. Chemically contaminated ground water or pesticides – may cause the baby leukemia X-rays – may cause mental retardation, or low birth weight Environmental Influence: Paternal Factor X-ray prior to conception/ high lead exposure – babies tend to have low birth weight and slowed fetal growth. Men who smoke have an increased likelihood of transmitting genetic abnormalities. Older fathers may be significant source of birth defects including dwarfism, schizophrenia, and autism. teenage fathers are more likely to have babies with low birth weight, premature birth, and being small during the gestational age. First three years PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Principles of development 1. Cephalocaudal – development occurs from head to foot. 2. Proximodistal – development occurs from the center of the body to the extremities. Weight gain 5th month – 16 lbs. (2x the normal birth weight of 8lbs.) 12th month – 23 lbs. (gained 7 lbs. the nbw) 2nd year – 28 lbs. (gained 5 lbs.) 3rd year – 31 ½ lbs. (gained 3 ½ lbs.) Children develop faster during the first few month. Teething - occurs at the 3rd to 4th month Arrival of the first tooth – 5th to 9th month 6 – 8 teeth - 1st year complete teeth - 3rd year Reflexes - automatic involuntary response to a stimuli 3 types of reflexes 1. Primitive – related to instinctive needs for survival and protection 2. Postural – reactions to changes in position or balance 3. Locomotor – resemble voluntary movements that do not appear until months after the reflexes have disappeared Reflex Stimulation Baby's Behavior Moro Baby is dropped or hears a loud noise Extends legs , arms and fingers, arches back, draws back head Darwinian (Grasping) Palm of baby's hand is stroked Makes strong fist; can be raised to standing position if both fists are closed Tonic neck Baby is laid down on back Turns head to one side, assumes fencer position, extends arm and leg on preferred side, flexes opposite limbs Babinski Sole of baby's foot is stroked Toes fan out; foot twists in. Babkin Both of baby's palms are stroked at once Mouth opens, eyes close, neck flexes, head tilts Rooting Baby's cheek or lower lip is stroked with finger or nipple Head turns; mouth opens sucking movement begin. Walking Baby is held under arms, with bare feet touching flat surface Makes steplike motions that look like well coordinated walking Swimming Baby is put into water face down Makes a well coordinated swimming movement Early Sensory Capacities 1. Touch and Pain – First to develop and the fastest to mature; by 32nd week of gestation the whole body is sensitive to touch. 2.Smell and Taste – develop in the womb; the preference to mother's milk in the baby is a sign of evolutionary survival mechanism. 3. Hearing – auditory discrimination develops rapidly after birth at 1st month. 4. Sight – Least sense at birth; retinal structures are incomplete, and the optic nerve is underdeveloped. Neonate's eyes focus best from about 1 foot away Motor Development and Perception There is a bidirectional connection between action and perception. By doing something, we learn something. Visual Guidance – Use of the eyes to guide movements of the hands or other parts of the body. Depth Perception – Ability to perceive objects and surfaces three-dimensionally. Haptic Perception – Ability to acquire information about properties of objects, such as size, weight, and texture, by handling them. Thelen's Dynamic Systems Theory – motor development is a continuous process of interaction between the baby and the environment. Chapter 4 – first three years of life Infant Memory Infantile Amnesia – the inability to remember events before 2 years old. According to Piaget, this phenomenon happened because the brain is still underdeveloped. According to Freud, they are stored but repressed because they are emotionally troubling. Young infants memory of a behavior seems to be linked specifically to the original cue. Absence of the cue may not stimulate the memory of the infant. Psychometric Approach Measures the quantitative differences in abilities that make up intelligence by using tests that indicate or predict these abilities. Intelligence Quotient Test – Psychometric test that seek to measure intelligence by comparing a test-taker's performance with standardized norms. Developmental Test – Psychometric test that compares a baby's performance on a series of tasks with standardized norms for particular ages. Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development – Standardized test of infants' and toddler's mental and motor development. Piagetian Approach Schemes – Piaget's term for organized patterns of thought and behavior used in particular situations Circular Reactions – Processes by which an infant learns to reproduce desired occurrences originally discovered by chance. Six Substages of Sensorimotor Stage 1. Use of reflexes (birth to 1 month) They do not grasp an object they are looking at. ex. Dory begins sucking when her mother's breast is in her mouth. 2. Primary circular reactions (1 – 4 months) Infants repeat pleasurable behaviors that first occur by chance (such as thumb sucking). Activities focus on the infant's body rather than the effects of the behavior on the environment. They begin to turn toward sounds, showing the ability to coordinate different kinds of sensory information (vision and hearing) They begin to coordinate sensory information and grasp objects. 3. Secondary circular reactions (4 – 8 months) Infants become more interested in the environment; they repeat actions that repeat that bring interesting results (such as shaking a rattle) and prolong interesting experiences. Action gets a response from another person or object, leading to baby's repeating original action. Actions are intentional but not initially goal directed. 4. Coordination of secondary schemes (8 – 12 months) They have learned to generalize from past experience to solve new problems. They will crawl to get something they want, grab it, or push away a barrier to it. This substage marks the development of complex, goal-directed behavior. They can anticipate events. 5. Tertiary circular reactions (12 – 18 months) Action gets one pleasing result, leading to perform similar actions to get similar results. Toddlers show curiosity and experimentation; they purposefully vary their actions to see results. They try out new activities and use trial and error in solving problems. 6. Mental Combinations (18 – 24 months) A transition to the preoperational stage. Development of representational ability, which is the capacity to store mental images or symbols of objects and events. Symbolic thought enables toddlers to begin to think about events and anticipate their consequences without always resorting to action. Toddlers begin to demonstrate insight. Key Developments of the Sensorimotor Stage Imitation Object permanence Symbolic development Categorization Causality Number Imitation Invisible imitation – Imitation with parts of one's body that one cannot see. ex. mouth Visible imitation – Imitation with parts of one's body can see. ex. Hands Deferred imitation – Reproduction of an observed behavior after the passage of time by calling up a stored symbol of it. Object Permanence The term for understanding that a person or object still exists when out of sight. Develops during the fourth substage and fully achieve during the sixth substage. Development of Object Permanence Symbolic Development Symbols – intentional representations of reality. Information Processing Approach Focuses on perception, learning, memory, and problem solving. It aims to discover how children process information form the time they encounter it until they use it. At about 6 weeks, Stefan lies peacefully in his crib near a window, sucking a pacifier. It is a cloudy day, but suddenly the sun breaks through, and an angular shaft of light appears on the end of the crib. Stefan stops sucking for a few moments, staring at the pattern of light an shade. Then he looks away and stars sucking again. Habituation – a type of learning in which repeated or continuous exposure to a stimulus reduces attention to that stimulus Dishabituation – Increase in responsiveness after presentation of a new stimulus. Visual Preference - tendency of infants to spend more time looking at one sight than another; it is based on the ability to make visual distinctions. Babies less than 2 years old seem to prefer curved lines to straight lines; complex patterns to simple patterns, three dimensional objects, pictures of faces(or facelike configurations) to pictures of other things, and new sights to familiar sights. Novelty preference – tendency to prefer on familiar things. Visual recognition memory – Ability to distinguish a familiar visual stimulus from an unfamiliar one when shown both at the same time. Longer gaze means that the child was exposed to the stimulus before. Cross-Modal transfer – ability to use information gained by one sense to guide another. A child tends to look longer to a plastic cylinder, which was being held, than a wet sponge, which was not touched before. Habituation and visual recognition memory are moderate predictors of IQ. Language Development Prelinguistic speech – Forerunner of linguistic speech; utterance of sounds that are not words. Includes crying, cooing, babbling, and accidental imitation of sounds without understanding its meaning. Linguistic speech – Verbal expression designed to convey meaning. Holophrase – Single word that conveys a complete thought. ex. “Da” means “where is daddy” Telegraphic Words – Early form of sentence use consisting of only a few essential words. ex. “Damma Deep” means “Grandma is sweeping the floor”. Syntax – rules for forming sentences in a particular language. Psychosocial Development in first three years of life Foundations of Psychosocial Development Developmental Issues in Infancy Developmental Issues in Toddlerhood Foundations of Psychosocial Development Personality – the relatively consistent blend of emotions, temperament, thought, and behavior that makes a person unique. Personality development is intertwined with the development of psychosocial aspect of the child. Emotions – Subjective reactions to experience that are associated with physiological and behavioral changes. Early signs of emotion Crying Laughing and smiling 4 patterns of crying Hunger cry (rhythmic cry) Angry cry (variation of rhythmic cry) Pain cry (a sudden onset of a loud cry; Frustration cry (two/ three drawn-out cry) Altruistic Helping – acting out of concern for a stranger with no expectation of reward. Empathy – ability to put oneself in another person's place an feel what the other person feels. Temperament – Characteristic disposition, or style of approaching and reacting to situations. Temperament types Easy Children – Children with a generally happy temperament, regular biological rhythms, and a readiness to accept new experiences. Difficult Children – Children with irritable temperament, irregular biological rhythms, and intense emotional response. Slow-to-warm-up Children – Children whose temperament is generally mild but who are hesitant about accepting new experiences. Developmental Issues in Infancy Basic Trust vs. Basic Mistrust - 1st stage of Erikson's Psychosocial Development, in which infants develop a sense of reliability of people and objects. Virtue: Hope Trust leads to attachment Attachment – Reciprocal, enduring tie between two people, especially between infant and caregiver, each of whom contributes to the quality of the relationship. Types of Attachment Secure attachment – Pattern in which an infant cries or protests when the primary caregiver leaves and actively seeks out the caregiver on his/her return. Avoidant attachment – Pattern in which an infant rarely cries when separated from the primary caregiver and avoids contact on his/her return Abivalent/ resistant attachment – Pattern in which an infant becomes anxious before the primary caregiver leaves, is extremely upset during his/her absence, and both seeks and resists contact on his/her return. Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment – Pattern in which an infant, after separation from the primary caregiver, shows contradictory repetitious, or misdirected behaviors on his/her return. Emergence of the self Self- concept – sense of self; descriptive and evaluative mental picture of one's abilities and traits. Self- coherence – the sense of being a physical whole with boundaries separate from the rest of the world. Self- awareness – conscious knowledge of the self as a distinct, identifiable being. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Erikson's second stage in which children achieve a balance between self-determination and control by others. Negativism – non-compliance to an authority. It gives evidence to the emergence of autonomy. Chapter 4 – b Cognitive Development Advances and Immature aspects of Preoperational thought Psychometric Approach Language Development Advances of Preoperational Stage Symbolic Function Children do not need to be in sensorimotor contact with an object, person, or event in order to think about it. It is the representational ability of children to a thing in which she has attached a meaning. Children can imagine that objects or people have properties other than those that they have. Causality Children have realized that events have causes. Transduction – the child's tendency to mentally link particular phenomena, whether or not there is logically a causal relationship. Ex. Luis might think that his bad behavior is the cause of the divorce of his parents. Categorization – Children organize objects, people, and events. They are able to distinguish bad from good actions; color; shape; living and non living. Animism – The ability to attribute life to non living things. Numbers Children can count and deal with quantities Immature Aspects Centration The tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect others. It limits young children's thinking to think about social and physical relationships Egocentricism Inability to consider another's point of view. It causes children confusion with reality and what's inside their head. Conservation Awareness that two objects that are equal according to a certain measure remain equal in the face of a perceptual alteration so long as nothing has been added to or taken away from either object. Irreversibility Failure to understand that an operation can go in two or more directions. Psychometric Approach Individually administered tests Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale – used to measure fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Revised – yields verbal and performance scores as well as a combined score. Psychosocial Development Self-Concept and Cognitive Development Psychosocial Development Gender Play Zone of Proximal Development – Vygostky's term for the difference between what a child can do alone and what the child can do with help. Scaffolding – Temporary support to help a child master a task. Language development Children learn to follow the proper rules in language. Pragmatics – the practical knowledge needed to use language for communicative purposes. Social speech – Speech intended to be understood by a listener. Private speech – Talking aloud to oneself with no intent to communicate with others. Emergent literacy – Preschoolers' development of skills, knowledge, and attitudes that underlie reading and writing. Self-concept and cognitive development Self-concept – sense of self; descriptive and evaluative mental picture of one's abilities and traits. Real self Ideal self Psychosocial Development Initiative vs. Guilt The child has a growing desire to plan and carry out activities and the growing pangs of conscience the child may have about such plans that these activities need social approval. This stage marks a split between two parts of personality. The adult and the child that constantly evaluates events and the need to do new things. Gender Gender identity – awareness that one is male or female. Aspects of Gender Identity Gender roles – Behaviors, interests, attitudes, skills, and traits that a culture considers appropriate for each sex; differ from males or females. Gender typing – Socialization process whereby children, at an early age, learn appropriate gender roles. Gender stereotypes – preconcieved generalization about male or female behavior. Ex. All females are passive and dependent; all males are aggressive and independent Biological Perspective – Tomboys' have higher level of androgen than normal girls are. Evolutionary theory Theory of sexual selection – Theory that gender roles developed in response to men's and women's differing reproductive needs. Psychoanalytic Approach Identification – a process by which a young child adopts characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors of the parent of the same sex. Kohlberg's Cognitive-Development Theory – gender knowledge precedes gendered behavior. “I am a boy, so I will behave as a boy.” Gender consistency – Awareness that one will always be male or female. Gender Schema Theory – Theory, proposed by Sandra Bem, that children socialize themselves in their gender roles by developing a mentally organized network of information about what it means to be male or female in a particular culture. Social Cognitive Theory – holds that children learn gender roles through socialization. Influences: Family Peer Culture Play: the business of Early Childhood Cognitive Levels of Play Functional – play involving repetitive large muscular movements Constructive – Play involving use of objects or materials to make something Dramatic – Play involving imaginary people or situations. Forms of Discipline Discipline, in human development, means training and instructions. It is the methods of molding children's character and of teaching them to exercise self control and engage in acceptable behavior. 1. Reinforcements 2. Punishments 3. Inductive Techniques Reinforcements - External: tangible or intangible - Internal: sense of pleasure and accomplishment. Punishments - corporal punishment – use of physical force with the intention of causing pain but not injury so as to correct or control behavior. - Psychological aggression – verbal attacks on a child by a parent that may result in psychological harm Inductive techniques – disciplinary techniques designed to induce desirable behavior by appealing to a child's sense of reason and fairness. Middle Childhood Physical Development Height and Weight Sleep Patterns Motor Development and Physical Play Medical Conditions Middle Childhood age bracket: 6 – 11 Children grow about 2 – 3 inches each year Girls retain more fatty tissues than boys, which will be retained until adulthood. Culture plays a role in the physical changes during middle childhood. African American children grows faster than the Caucasians Hispanic American children have higher percentage of fatty tissues than Caucasians. African American children develops more muscles than Hispanic and Caucasian children. Nutrition and Sleep An average of 2400 calories per day for older children and less for younger ones. Time of sleep decreases. A child at age 5 needs 11 hours of sleep A child at age 9 needs 10 hours of sleep A child at age 13 needs 9 hours of sleep Motor Development Fine motor skills – skills that make use of less energy and muscle movements. ex. Typing Gross motor skills – skills that make use of more energy and muscle movements. ex. Dancing Supposedly, children should use more of GMS than FMS but recent findings shows that children uses more FMS than GMS. Rough-and-tumble play – Vigorous play involving wrestling, hitting and chasing, often accompanied by laughing and screaming. Sports and plays improve motor skills, which is beneficial until adulthood. Medical Conditions Acute medical condition – illness that last a short time ex. flu, colds, cough, or viruses which are typically passed by other children at school. Children experiences 6 – 7 bouts of acute medical conditions. Chronic medical condition – illness that last for at least three months - the most common chronic medical condition is asthma (a chronic respiratory disease characterized by sudden attacks of coughing, wheezing, and difficulty in breathing. Chapter 6 – Middle Childhood Cognitive Development Piagetian Approach Psychometric Approach Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligence Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Learning Disabilities Piagetian Approach: Concrete Operations Concrete Operations – Third stage of Piagetian cognitive development, during which children develop logical but not abstract thinking. - here and now - they can take multiple aspects of a situation into account. Advances of Concrete Operational Stage Spatial Relationship The ability to use maps and models and the ability to communicate spatial information develops during this stage. They have the ability to estimate how far places are and how long it will take to reach that place. Causality Judgement and cause and effect also improve. They are able to tell why differing weighs have varying effects to the balance scales. Categorization – children are able to categorize including sophisticated categorization abilities, such as seriation, transitive inference, and class inclusion Seriation – Ability to order items along a dimension Ex. (lightest to heaviest) Transitive Inference – Understanding of the relationship between two objects by knowing the relationship of each to a third object Ex. blue stick is longer than the yellow stick and yellow stick is longer than the green stick, therefore blue stick is longer than green stick Class Inclusion – Understanding the relationship of the whole and its parts. If you ask a child in the preoperational stage whether there are more roses than the flowers in a bunch of 7 roses and 3 tulips, they will answer the roses are more than the flowers, which is not present in the concrete operational stage Inductive Reasoning – type of logical reasoning that moves from particular observations about members of a class to a general conclusion about that class. Conservation Principle of identity – the identity of an object is maintained regardless of its changes. Reversibility – an object can return to its original state after being altered. Numbers – children are able to use mathematical operations Psychometric Approach Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC III) – version of WPPSI for school aged children Otis Lennon School Ability Test (OLSAT 8) – Group intelligence test for kindergarten through high school. Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligence Linguistic – Ability to use and understand words and nuances of meaning Logical – mathematical – Ability to manipulate numbers and solve logical problems Spatial – Ability to find one's way around in an environment and judge relationships between objects in space. Musical – Ability to perceive and create patterns of pitch and rhythm Bodily Kinesthetic – Ability to move with precision Interpersonal – Ability to understand and communicate with others Intrapersonal – Ability to understand the self Naturalist – Ability to distinguish species and their characteristics Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence 1. Componential element – Analytic aspect of intelligence 2. Experiential element – Insightful or creative aspect of intelligence 3. Contextual element – Practical aspect of intelligence Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test – Used to measure the the three aspects of intelligence Creativity The ability to see things in a new way, to produce innovations, or to discern previously unidentified problems and find novel solutions. J.P. Guillford – distinguished two types of thinking; convergent and divergent Convergent – thinking aimed at finding the one right answer to a problem Divergent – Thinking that produces a variety of fresh diverse possibilities Torrance Test of Creativity Thinking – use divergent thinking to measure creativity Learning Disabilities Learning Disabilities - Disorders that interfere with specific aspects of learning and school achievement. Dyslexia – Developmental Disorder in which reading achievement is substantially lower than predicted IQ or age. - Tom Cruise, Whoopi Goldberg, Steven Spielberg Attention – Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)– Syndrome characterized by persistent inattention and distractibility, impulsivity, low tolerance for frustration, and inappropriate overactivity. - John Lennon, Robin Williams, and Jim Carey Giftedness Enrichment programs – Programs for educating the gifted that broaden and deepen knowledge and skill through extra activities, projects, afield trips, and mentoring. Acceleration – Programs that move them through the curriculum at an unusally rapid pace. Chapter 6 – Middle Childhood Psychosocial Development Self-esteem The child in the peer group Emotional Disturbance Treatment Techniques Self – Esteem The judgement a person makes about his/ her self worth. According to Erikson, the major determinant of self esteem is children's view of their capacity for productive work. Industry versus Inferiority – the child is required to learn what is valued as productive skill in their culture, if not or did not master the skill, then the child develops feelings of inferiority. Virtue: Competence Family Atmosphere Coregulation – Transitional stage in the control of behavior in which parents exercise general supervision and children exercise moment to moment self-regulation. This is carried out through the use of inductive techniques. ex. “No wonder you missed your school bus. You stayed up late and woke up late. Now, you have to walk to school.” Parent's Work – parents employment status has effect to the child's development. According to a research, parents who work part-time has children with higher grades than those who work as full time. SES – has an effect to child's development. Family Structure 1. Divorce 2. Living in One Parent Family 3. Living in Cohabiting Family 4. Living with Gay or Lesbian Parents 5. Adoptive Families Child in the Peer Group Positive Effects of Peer Groups 1. Development of Self – efficacy 2. Emotional Security 3. Learns Gender Appropriate behaviors Negative Effects of Peer Groups 1. Prejudice 2. Possible to foster Antisocial Tendecies Selman's Stages of Friendship Stage 0: Momentary Playmateship (3 -7) Egocentric, materialistic friendship “She lives on my street” “He has the power ranger” Stage 1: One-way Assistance (4 -9) A good friend does what the child wants to do. She's not my friend anymore, because she wouldnt go with me when I wanted her to. Stage 2: Two-way Fair weather cooperation (6-12) Give and take but still serves many separate self interest, rather than the common interest of the two friends “A friend is someone who plays with you when you don't have anybody else to play with” Stage 3: Intimate, mutually shared relationships (9-15) Children views friendship as having life of its own. It is an ongoing, systematic, committed relationship that incorporates more than doing things for each other. “it takes a long time to make a close friend, so you really feel bad if you find out that your friend is trying to make other friends too.” Stage 4: Autonomous interdependence (12 above) Children respect friends' needs for both dependency and autonomy “a good freindship is a real commitment, a risk you have to take and give, but you have to be able to let go too.” Emotional Disturbance Disruptive Conduct Disorder Oppositional Defiant Disorder – Pattern of behavior persisting into middle childhood, marked by negativity, hostility, and defiance. Conduct Disorder – Repititive, persistent pattern of aggressive, antisocial behavior voilating societal norms or the rights of others. School Phobia and Other Anxiety Disorder School phobia – Unrealistic fear of going to school; may be a form of separation anxiety or social phobia Separation Anxiety – Condition involving excessive, prolonged anxiety concerning separation from home or from people to whom a person is attached Social Phobia – Extreme fear and/ or avoidance of social situations. Generalized Anxiety Disorder – Anxiety not focused on any single target. Obsessive – Compulsive Disorder – Anxiety aroused by repetitive, intrusive thoughts, images, or impulses, often leading to compulsive ritual behaviors. Childhood Depression A mood disorder characterized by such symptoms as a prolonged sense of friendlessness, inability to have fun or concentrate, fatigue, extreme activity or apathy, feelings of worthlessness, weight change, physical complaints, and thoughts of death or suicide. Treatment Techniques Individual Therapy – Psychological treatment in which a therapist sees a troubled person one-on-one Family Therapy – Psychological treatment in which the therapist sees the family together to analyze patterns of family functioning Behavior Therapy – Therapeutic approach using principles of learning theory to encourage desired behaviors or eliminate undesired ones Art Therapy – Therapeutic approach that allows a persont to express troubled feelings without words, using a variety of art materials. Play Therapy – Therapeutic approach that uses play to help a child cope with emotional distress Drug Therapy – Administration of drugs to treat emotional disorders Selective-serotonin reuptake inhi