Reviewer PDF

BASIC BUILDING CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND d. GRADING - in construction is an EQUIPMENT engineering process that adjusts the slope and soil elevat...

BASIC BUILDING CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND d. GRADING - in construction is an EQUIPMENT engineering process that adjusts the slope and soil elevation around a construction BUILDING CONSTRUCTION METHODS site before building. Equipments: Motor Grader, Bulldozer 1.) SURVEY AND STAKING - To stake out reference e. COMPACTION - is the method of points and markers that will guide the construction mechanically increasing the density of soil. of new structures such as roads or buildings. Equipment used for this activity: Smooth Equipment used for this activity: Total Station, Drum Roller, Walk Behind Compactor, Stadia Rod, Prism Rod Plate Compactor, Sheep Foot Roller, Tampering Rammer REBAR WORKS Method that adds long-term strength to the concrete used to build foundations, walls, pools, pads and other structures. Rebar Works include: 2.) EARTHWORKS - Construction of most buildings 1. Fabrication and would involve the removal of overburden to 2. Installation reach structurally capable earth or soil, excavation for basements and other underground structures, Formwork– or concrete forms – are often panels that and to make structural fills to support floors. can be attached together to form a mould in the a. CLEARING AND GRUBBING - desired location on site. Process of removing all vegetation from the property to prepare the construction Falsework– or shoring, is a temporary structure that is jobsite for a new building or structure. used to support formwork in a horizontal position. Equipment used for this activity: Bulldozer, payloader, excavator Types of Formworks 1. PLYBOARD / PHENOLIC 2. PLASTIC 3. STEEL b. EXCAVATION - the process of moving CONCRETING WORKS earth, rock or other materials with tools, Construction process that involves: equipment or explosives. Equipment used 1. Preparation of the concrete mix for this activity: excavator,backhoe 2. Delivery of the mix to the construction site feeding, distribution a. Manual (by Pail) b. Direct Pouring c. By concrete bucket d. By placing boom c. BACKFILL - is the process of putting the e. By pumpcrete soil back into a trench or foundation once 3. Compaction of the mix in the formworks excavation, and the related work has been 4. Curing of the concrete completed. Equipment used for this Equipment used for this activity: activity: excavator, backhoe, skid steerer,  One-Bagger Mixer dump truck  Batching Plant  Concrete Mixer Truck  Mobile Pumpcrete  Stationary Pumpcrete  Self-Loading Mixer Truck  Concrete Bucket  Placing Boom  Concrete Vibrator MASONRY WORKS ADVANCE CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND MASONRY is used to indicate the art of building a TECHNOLOGY structure in either stones or bricks. The masonry wall is built of individual blocks of materials such as stones, INNOVATIONS IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY bricks, concrete, hollow blocks usually in horizontal Program / Software courses cemented together with some form of mortar. Materials and Methods Equipment WATERPROOFING It involves creating an impervious barrier across 1. PROGRAM / SOFTWARE important surfaces within and outside the home to ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE prevent water from getting inside. LEARNING Efficient and intelligent decision-making has notable Types of Waterproofing effects on productivity and safety.  Bituminous Waterproofing Improved Safety  Torch Membrane Waterproofing Decreased Cost  Polyurethane Waterproofing Better Design  Cementitious Waterproofing  Liquid Membrane Waterproofing AUGMENTED REALITY  Automate measurements STEEL / METAL WORKS MEPFS Visualize modifications Disciplines that encompass the systems that allow Provide safety information building interiors to be suitable for human use and occupancy. RESOURCE MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE  Mechanical Used to manage the human capital and schedule of an  Electrical organization  Plumbing  Fire Safety SENSOR DATA Purpose of Sensors in Construction FINISHING WORKS 1. Monitor Site Conditions  Roofing 2. Enhance Equipment and Material  Wall Finishes Management  Floor Finishes 3. Improve Worker Safety  Windows 4. Empower Better Facility Management  Doors 5. Quality Control / Assurance Measures  Installation of Electrical and Plumbing Fixtures ADVANCE TAKEOFF AND ESTIMATING TOOLS OTHER EQUIPMENT USED IN BUILDING DIGITAL TWINS / DIGITAL AS-BUILTS CONSTRUCTION Virtual replica of a physical asset that gives real- time  CRANES (Tower / Mobile) data in all phases of construction and maintenance BUILDING INFORMATION MODELLING (BIM) Building information modeling is useful for all stages of construction: Before construction.  DRILLING RIG During construction After construction 2. METHODS AND MATERIALS SUSTAINABLE MATERIALS Reduce carbon emissions Reduce construction costs Improve structural energy efficiency Increase property value PREFABRICATION AND Twin Wall Technology INDUSTRIALIZATION Improved productivity, improved quality, and increased schedule certainty compared with traditional construction methods. 1. Precast Flat Panel System 2. 3D Volumetric Modules 3. Flat Slab Construction 4. Precast Cladding Panels 3D PRINTING 5. Twin Wall Technology 6. Precast Concrete Foundation Precast Flat Panel System This method of construction involves the procedure of making floor and wall units off site. Precast Concrete Foundation The elements required for the construction of foundation are constructed separately in the factory (off site) and brought to the site and assembled. 3D Volumetric Modules 3. EQUIPMENT the 3D volumetric construction involves the manufacture of 3D units in the form of modules in off DRONES site. At the time of installation, they are brought to the Purpose in Construction Sites: site and assembled module by module. Each modular unit manufactured are 3D units. 1. Mapping 2. Tracking 3. Security 4. Monitoring and Inspection BUILDING SITEWORKS AND SUBSTRUCTURES TOPIC OUTLINE ❑ INTRODUCTION Flat Slab Construction ❑ SITE AND TEMPORARY WORKS ❑ EXCAVATION  Factors to Consider  Methods ❑ TEMPORARY EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES  Sheet Piling  Diaphragm Wall  Underpinning Precast Cladding Panel  Cofferdam ❑ FOUNDATION WORKS  Different types of Foundation in Building Construction What is Substructure and Superstructure of a building? ✓ Nature of Subsoil ✓ Size of Excavation ✓ Scale of Works ✓ Ground Water Condition ✓ Surrounding Condition TYPES OF EXCAVATION  FULL OPEN CUT METHOD Sloped Full Open Cut: In this method, the sides of the excavation are sloped SITE AND TEMPORARY WORKS at a safe angle to prevent the soil from collapsing. The Temporary works provide an engineered solution that is slope angle depends on the type of soil and the depth used to support or protect either a structure during of excavation. It is usually employed in large open construction, an item of plant or equipment, the sides of areas where there is no risk to surrounding structures. an excavation during construction operations or to provide access. Cantilever Open Cut: In this type, vertical cuts are made without the support Examples of Site and Temporary Works of a slope. It requires stable soil conditions or shallow 1. Site clearing excavations. This is typically used for narrower 2. Site Fencing and Hoarding excavations where sloping is not feasible. 3. Temporary Facilities 4. Cut and Fill for high/low areas  BRACING EXCAVATION METHOD 5. Excavations 6. Compaction of soil 7. Removing existing utilities, 8. Installation of temporary lighting; water; or gas supply, 9. Temporary drainage to the site A type of excavation method where Earth pressure 10. Temporary pavement transfer to horizontal struts through wale, and the purpose of corner and end braces is to reduce wale Temporary works to provide structural support span without increasing strut number. Center posts include: prevent the failure of struts due to their own weight. ❑ Shoring for excavations ❑ Propping for walls and floors  ANCHORED EXCAVATION METHOD ❑ Falsework for above ground concrete pours ❑ Scaffolds for access ❑ Haul roads and working platforms for plant including cranes ❑ Permanent works used for temporary purposes during construction EXCAVATION Excavation work generally means work involving the removal of soil or rock from a site to form an open Anchored excavations involve installing structural face, hole or cavity, using tools, machinery or Explosives elements called anchors or tiebacks in soil or rock to transmit tensile loads and stabilize excavations and WHAT TO CONSIDER? structures. Excavation in most situations nowadays is done by  ISLAND EXCAVATION METHOD mechanical means. However, the exact method to be adopted stilldepends upon a number of factors: This method involves digging up the center of the area of excavation. The excavated material is positioned near the retaining wall, which creates a slope. The central  area of the excavation has a major structure over it DIAPHRAGM WALL is constructed using a trench excavated in ground and supported by a mud fluid (typically bentonite or polymer mud) until the mud is  ZONE EXCAVATION METHOD replaced by concrete, after the steel cage installation. In the zoned excavation method, diaphragm walls are used to create a retaining wall. The longer span wall has Construction Methodology a longer deformation, as compared to the short span  Grabs wall. The engineers divide the area of excavation into  Trench small zones to minimize the deflections of the longer Cutter span walls.  TOP DOWN EXCAVATION METHOD Applications: Deep basements Underground carparks and railway stations Tunnel approaches Underpasses In this method, construction begins from the top to the Shafts for tunnel ventilation bottom of excavation and superstructure construction Pump stations starts after the construction of the first slab is completed So, slabs are constructed after each stage of UNDERPINNING excavation is finished The process of placing a new foundation under an existing one or strengthening an existing foundation TEMPORARY EARTH RETAINING is called underpinning of foundation. STRUCTURES Methods: 1. PIT METHOD involves extending the old SHEET PILING foundation till it reaches a stable stratum. SHEET PILES are sections of sheet steel with 2. PILE METHOD piles are driven on adjacent interlocking edges (or clutches) that are driven into the sides of the wall that supports the weak foundation. ground to provide earth retention and excavation support. FOUNDATIONS In construction, foundations are generally known as the structures below a building's columns. They are responsible for ensuring the stability of their structures by transferring its weight to the ground. Two types: SHALLOW & DEEP This method is adopted when: SHALLOW FOUNDATION ✓ Soil to be excavated is soft or loose Used for smaller projects and when top soil can handle the weight ✓ Depth of excavation is large  SPREAD FOOTING A footing in building ✓ Width of trench is also large construction that is shallow in proportion to its ✓ Presence of water in subsoil width.  COMBINED FOOTING used while construction of two or more columns when they are close to each other, and their foundations overlap.  STRIP FOOTING Shallow foundation type, usually boasting a founding level that is no greater than 3m from the ground surface.  MATT FOOTING a large continuous rectangular or circular concrete slab that DIAPHRAGM WALL carries the entire load of the superstructure and  spreads it over the whole area beneath the building. DEEP FOUNDATIONS  PILE FOUNDATION Classification of Pile REINFORCING COLUMNS: Guidelines ❑ According to Function (BEARING ;FRICTION) 1. Check the numbers and diameter of vertical ❑ According to Material ( CONCRETE; bars TIMBER; STEEL; COMPOSITE) 2. Spacing between vertical bars 3. Check Development length which depends on CONCRETE PILES are manufactured diameter of bar by following two types; Precast & Cast in Place 4. Lapping in alternate bars should come at same height. 5. Lapping should not come inside beam or slab. 6. Lapping should be at l/3 or 2l/3 of column as per structural notes 7. Spacing between stirrups is as per the drawing 8. Hook should be bend properly at right angles. 9. Check the stirrups corner. Vertical bar should come at right angle edge of stirrup properly bound with binding wire. FORMWORKS & FALSEWORKS FORMWORKS & FALSEWORKS: Guidelines To hold the concrete forms firmly in place and for proper alignment a concrete pad called starter is cast before fixing the shuttering. The thickness is about 45 mm to 60 mm and dimensions are BUILDING SUPERSTRUCTURES precisely the same as the dimensions of proposed COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING column. SUPERSTRUCTURE Column box or shuttering for columns is made of SUPERSTRUCTURE is a part of a building built above plywood sheets or steel sheets fabricated with the foundation. adequate stiffeners. Forms should be maintained by application of form oil. Forms should be properly aligned to its verticality and diagonals to be checked to ensure accuracy in dimensions. Formwork has to be thoroughly supported with props size before pouring the concrete so that it does not moves horizontally or vertically during concreting. The gaps near the shuttered joints should be sealed Appropriate space is to be provided in the inner face of the shutter and reinforcement by fixing cover blocks CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY (COLUMNS) of about 40mm. COLUMNS - Rigid vertical structural members It is preferable to remove shutters after 24 hrs. of designed primarily to support axial compressive casting and if they need to be removed earlier, it loads coming from beams and slabs and then transfer it to ground through should not be removed within sixteen hours. footing. The removal of forms has to be done gently without jerks so that edges of columns are not damaged.  CONCRETING WORKS Formwork  Manual Bending and Binding Steel Bars  Concrete Bucket Positioning of steel bars  Pumpcrete/Line Pump Placement of cement concrete CONCRETING WORKS POST – CONCRETING WORKS For less quantity machine mix concrete is done and Bottom forms of a newly poured slab can be for larger quantity ready mix concrete (RMC) is ordered. removed min. 14-21 days after Shoring will be Concrete should be poured up to slab bottom; the retained up to 28 calendar days. remaining column gets concreted during pouring of slab Curing process can be done by laying water & beam. retaining mats (e.g. burlaps) and then spraying Mechanical vibrator to be compulsorily used in the water (maintain saturated condition) or curing column but excess vibration can cause segregation. Each compound. layer should be thoroughly compacted. Rate of application (curing compound) (4 L / 14 Target slump to be 160 mm. sq.m) Height of pouring concrete should not exceed 1.5 m. Construction joint should be avoided in the column. CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY (WALLS) Proper cover as per structural drawings to be  Reinforced Concrete Wall maintained.  Masonry Wall Temperature should be below 32 degree celsius while pouring concrete. 1. Setting of Corner Block After the pouring of concrete and vibrating it with the 2. Application of Mortar inside help of a vibrator the horizontality and verticality of 3. Placing of Mortar column to be checked 4. Lay the Concrete Hollow Blocks 5. After three (3) layers, horizontal reinforcement is POST – CONCRETING WORKS installed Column formworks are removed 2 calendar days after 6. Check the alignment concrete pouring 7. Plastering works Curing process can be done by wrapping the newly **Steps 2-6: Repeat the process constructed column by water retaining mats (e.g. burlaps) and then spraying water on a daily basis. CONCRETING WORKS Concrete pouring begins after formwork and its ties, CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY (BEAMS) pins and wedges are adequately fixed. BEAMS - In building construction, a beam is a horizontal member spanning an opening and Suitable measures are considered to prevent carrying a load leakages. RCC Beam can be placed in the following four After that, oil applied for the formwork surface. phases : Then, fresh concrete is poured using pumps or any Formwork other appropriate techniques. Concrete need to be compacted during placement and Bending and binding steel bars shall be worked around embedded items and Placing of cement concrete reinforcement and into corners of forms. Curing If stay-in-place forms are used, concrete shall be consolidated by internal vibration. POST – CONCRETING WORKS Side forms of a newly casted beam can be removed after 24 hours while its centering is removed after 14 calendar days to 28 calendar days. Curing process can be done by wrapping the newly constructed beams by water retaining mats (e.g. burlaps) and then spraying water on a daily basis. CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY (SLAB) Kind of Slab in a Building  Slab on Grade  Suspended Slab RCC slab placement is done in the following 4 phases :  Considerations on Planning Installation Process 1. Precast Installation - Sequencing of Construction and Installation Procedures: Based on their location number and tags, precast elements should be identified. - Technique for offering temporary assistance: Prior to stabilization, elements should be supported temporarily - Installation Tolerances: Codal provisions should serve as the foundation for installation tolerances, and design considerations should be made very transparent. - Handling and Rigging Requirements: Before lifting, elements should be examined for handling stresses, and the cranes should have enough lifting power to handle the precast panels. 2. Water Proofing – external joints must be sealed with baker rods and sealants after being filled with grout. 3. Mechanical, Electrical, and Plumbing Fittings - Mechanical, electrical and plumbing fittings shall be kept open or concealed as per the requirements - Before casting, the conduits and electrical boxes must be installed and fixed in the molds - Provision of National Building Code for firefighting systems PRE-CAST AND PREFABRICATED CONSTRUCTION PLANNING, ANALYSIS, AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 4. Fire Rating – Precast concrete must be designed for fire resistance in accordance with prescribed DESIGN OF PRECAST STRUCTURES standards 1. PRECAST MEMBERS ARE DESIGNED TO WITHSTAND ALL POSSIBLE LOADS AT ALL STAGES, from storage to 5. Finishes jointing, as well as potential loads during the course of - Precast concrete can be produced in a variety of a building's lifespan. shapes, colors, textures, and finishes 2. Planning for all potential loads that might be placed - Rebating, Grooving, Surface coatings, cement- on joints and connections based renders, oxide coloring, and other surface treatments are required PRECAST AND PREFABRICATED Examples of Precast and Prefabricated Construction: ANALYSIS AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS - Produced in Factories 1. Consultants and Precast Methods - Transported to Site a. Type of Building - Assembled at Site  For repetitive designs with constant spans and floor heights, the precast technique is the most Advantages: practical 1. Partial or Complete Materials Savings  Precast concrete cladding components may be 2. Increased Workmanship Accuracy used in conjunction with natural stone or tile 3. Lessened Need for Labor cladding under similar circumstances 4. Faster Construction Period b. Scale of the Project 5. Independent of Rough Weather  A high number of similar or nearly similar 6. Lower Cost of Maintenance elements will reduce the cost of mold per 7. Concreting can proceed without interruption element since the investment in the molds for the casting of elements is distributed on the number of elements cast  c. Site Location and Local Conditions because a high repetition factor leads to a better  The possibilities for organizing the precast economy. Additionally, precasting curving method in terms of production, storage, and facades and cantilevered features may be more construction will be determined by the site's complex location, size, and accessibility b. Integrated Design Concept  All components must be delivered on  It is crucial to understand what components are transporters and immediately raised to the available, whether the precaster can contribute construction using the "just-intime" method to the design of joints and components, and when the available free area on the site is too whether the contractor has the appropriate little for production or even storage of the parts expertise to handle prefabricated components d. Economy c. Distribution of Precast Design Responsibility  Precast element construction estimates and  Using the so-called integrated design approach, budgets can be calculated using labor and the precast design process must be carried out material costs in cooperation with precast in close collaboration between the architect, the manufacturers engineers, the prefab maker, and the contractor  Many diverse elements, including walls, columns, 2. Architectural Considerations beams, slabs, staircases, and balconies, will be a. Planning included in a precast project. Some of these  The architectural planning and layout must be components, such as design charts for vertical directed by a modular set of grids with uniform loads, will inevitably be created by the precaster and standardized dimensions that have or are already a part of a standardized programme been analyzed and selected with production that is specified in catalogs relation to and purpose of the development 4. Economical and Ecological Considerations when the the first PLANNING decision to a. Increase in Cost - In comparison to a comparable employ precast construction or cladding is made construction cast in-situ, the amount of concrete used b. Massing in the construction will often be higher  Precast concrete panels in some form will be employed in a development, and the massing b. Reduction in Cost - Precast construction has lower selected by the architects will define the labor costs. According to experience, producing one complexity and variety of features needed ton of cast concrete elements takes three to four  Simple geometric forms work well as precast laborers' hours. On location, each component components and can be assembled into an resembles around three man hours of erection effort organic structure with particular design balcony connecting them features, stairs, and lift towers connecting them c. Ecology c. Surface  Evaluation of the total energy consumption of  The panels' contours or grooves might various buildings, building materials, and accentuate horizontal or vertical lines, and the production techniques is now natural and visible joints can be incorporated into designs or due to environmental concerns drawn attention to as a unique element  Companies must get prepared for the so-called d. Architectural Precast Cladding "green accounts" required by several countries  Precast elements' exterior claddings and interior  The construction industry now has access to non-loadbearing walls are essentially a finishing handbooks containing energy statistics, allowing touch; they are not intended to be a part of the designers to assess the effects of selecting building's structural structure alternative materials on energy consumption  Special consideration must be given to the fixing method, tolerances, and waterproofing of 5. Risk and Health Assessment in Design joints when designing precast cladding Considerations. e. Waterproofing a) Each component must be designed with the  Externally the joints must be able to withstand proper end conditions and stresses in heavy rain in combination with strong winds consideration at different phases of construction which means that water on some occasions is b) When designing, appropriate safety measures running upwards. The inner part of external must be implemented joints must be wind-tight to minimize the c) Every load-bearing component at the building's pressure corners needs to be restrained d) The design of prefabricated construction must 3. Structural Considerations take into account the possibility of gas or other a. Advantages and Constraints explosions, which could obliterate significant  Higher construction speed with increased structural components and cause the structure to productivity and greater quality are only a few gradually collapse benefits of prefabrication. A prefabricated e) It is essential to make sure that any localized external wall or cladding typically allows the damage to a structure does not spread to other architect the option for new shapes, different areas far from the place of accident and that the surfaces, and other colors structure's general stability is not compromised  Less diversity in a project could be a constraint  f) The designer must keep a close line of communication open with the builder or contractor regarding all areas of erection that have an impact on the structural design g) Construction-related failures seem to fall into one of two categories Pack-of-Cards Collapse: In this kind of failure, the absence of restraints like shear walls, cladding, or partitions suggests that the building was unstable when it was being built Situational Collapse: One element collapses during erection and hits another element below it in this kind of failure. As a result of the lower element's connections collapsing beneath the weight of the upper element —both static and MOULD RELEASE AGENTS dynamic —a series of subsequent collapses is set There are five basic groups of release agents: off (1) Nonemulsifiable machine oils. (2) Emulsifiable oils giving oilin-water phased systems MATERIALS, MOULD, & MODULAR (miscible with water). COORDINATION AND STANDARDIZATION. (3) Mould creams from water-in-oil phases (immiscible with water). What is MOULD in construction? (4) Metallic stearates and those of similar form and A mould, mold, moulding, or molding is a casing formed known as chemical release agents. by a rigid frame of wood, plastic, or metal, in which (5) Lanolin creams. liquid concrete or other pliable material is poured thus giving it a definite design and shape. OTHER MATERIALS What is the difference between Pre-cast and Site CEMENT – The most common cements used are cast moulds? ordinary and rapid-hardening Portland (including white), Precast moulds are designed and manufactured in a sulphate-resisting and high alumina cement. controlled environment before they are transported to their desired location for installation. Whereas site cast AGGREGATES moulds are developed in site.  The ideal shape of a coarse aggregate is rounded, angular and approximately cubic ADVANTAGES OF PRE-CAST MOULDS OVER SITE  These fall into two main types, each with several sub- CAST MOULDS groups:  VERSATILITY Natural Aggregates:  HIGH QUALITY Flint Volcanic (granites, basalts, feldspars, etc.)  EFFICINY Sandstone Limestone (sedimentary, oolitic, etc.)  AFFORDABILITY Marble (calcite) Barytes Natural sands (siliceous  ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY mainly, river, dune, wadi, marine)  DECREASED USE OF MANPOWER Perlite Vermiculite  STRENGTH  Synthetic Aggregates: Sintered pulverised fuel ash  STRUCTURAL REINFORCEMENT Expanded shale Expanded slate Expanded clay TYPES OF MOULDS BASED ON MATERIALS USED  Foamed slag Crushed bricks Calcined flint Iron Expanded plastics Reconstituted concrete JOINTS IN PRE-CAST AND PREFABRICATED CONSTRUCTIONS AND CURING TECHNIQUES The connections and joints of precast constructions — which also act as means of load transfer —ascertain both their stability and strength. What is a Joint?  It functions to provide physical separation between the components of the structure  A joint is where members or components of a MOULDS TREATMENT construction come together In using mould paints there are three salient points to be  At the joint, forces are taken place, such as remembered: compression, tension, shear, etc.  The paint system must be compatible with the  A joint could be inclined, vertical, or horizontal. substrate onto which it is to be applied. Connection  The paint shall always be pigmented as the pigment  A connection is an arrangement or assembly of contributes more to the lifetime than the type of adjacent members or elements from the components paint in which it is placed. of a joint.  Glossy smooth surfaces should never be used as  A connection is built to withstand the impact of they promote hydration staining forces and moments. Purpose of joins and connection in precast splice connection and anchor bolts. construction.  Splice connection 1. To transmit forces between structural components.  Anchor bolt connection 2. To provide overall stability e. Slab to Beam 3. To provide strength to the structure Among all precast connections, the precast slab to beam 4. To prevent external leakages connection is considered a vital one as the horizontal load 5. To resist unpredictable loads due to fire, impact and is transferred to the vertical load action. The slab and explosion beam should resisting structural elements by the diaphragm be connected properly and detailed sufficiently Requirement for connections of joints so that the transfer of loads occur smoothly to ensure 1. Strength: The connection must be able to withstand integrity and continuity in the structure. the forces that are applied to it over its lifetime d. Wall to Wall 2. Fire Resistance: A connection which could be Wall to wall connection creates a connection between two vulnerable by fire exposure should be sealed off. precast walls. Construction of precast walls are very rigid 3. Resistance to Change in Volume: As a result of the since the element are inherently stiff to begin with. combined shortening caused by creep, shrinkage, and Therefore, it is important to detail the connections in such temperature reduction, tensile stresses must be a way to ensure robustness in the event of a natural accounted for. disaster such as earthquake and absorb its energy to 4. Ductility: The connection's capacity to withstand avoid complete collapse. significant deformations without falling.  Bolted Connection 5. Durability: A connection's exposed section needs  Welded Connection routine maintenance and inspections.  Anchor/Dowel Connection Classification of Joints based on method of COMMONLY USED CONNECTIONSAND JOINTING connection TECHNIQUES a. Dry Joint - Joint accomplished by simply placing of two 1. Welding of Cleats or Projecting Steel members by means of fastening 2. Overlapping Reinforcement Bars b. Wet Joint - joint that needs cement casting as well as 3. Reinforced Concrete ties all around a slab grouting and concreting materials 4. Pre-stressing 5. Epoxy Types of Connections in a Prefabricated 6. Cement or Lime grout with non-shrink additive Construction. 7. Polymer slurry grouting at dowelcast bolts and nuts a. Column to Foundation connection For this kind of connection, you have to consider what 8. Reinforcement Coupler kind of an impact the column connection can make on 9. Combination of the Above your overall building process. There are three kinds of the column to foundation connections: ISSUES WITH JOINTS AND CONNECTIONS  Socketed connection 1. Adequate number of joints should be provided to  Bolted or base plate connection transfer the forces.  Mechanical splice connections 2. The joints and connection between core structure and b. Wall panel to Foundation components should be strong enough to transfer different These types of connections are used to tie the kinds of loads. loadbearing walls to the foundation. Any connection 3. Joints must have adequate strength to transfer gravity joining a wall panel to a foundation wall or a continuous and lateral load between precast elements. footing should provide a means of leveling and aligning 4. If joints and connections are not well finished and the panel. The attachment method also should be capable accomplished, it will result in leakage. of accepting the base shear in any direction. The capacities of these connections are the embed edge PRECAST VS PREFABRICATION distances and other design assumptions that should Pre-Cast is a concrete construction product made by satisfy production and design standards. casting concrete in a reusable mold or form and curing it c. Beam to Column in a controlled environment. Beam-to-column connections provide moment resistant Prefabrication is the practice of assembling structure connections between beams and columns at the corners components, mostly steel, in a factory or other of frames or a moment resisting connection to elongate manufacturing facility and transporting complete beams. The connection configuration and response assemblies or sub-assemblies to the construction site including strength, rotational stiffness and ductility affect where the structure will be located. buildings in several ways for this dry and wet connections are possible in the beam to column connection. PRECAST d. Column to Column MANUFACTURING OF PRE-CAST STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS Column to column connection’s primary function is to  Precast concrete members are manufactured in keep panels from bowing and/ or to transfer vertical shear factory under controlled conditions to keep standard force between panels. The connection is durable against dimensions and tolerances. corrosion due to the coverage for grout over the  Structural elements are commonly reinforced with connection. This type connection involves the use of tightly stretched pretensioned steel strands, which  provide increased structural efficiency SAGETY MEASURES  The use of Type III, high early strength cement and steam curing allows concrete members to be cast and cured in as little as 24 hours  Durable, permanent steel forms are reused many times, reducing formwork costs and allows greater control of surface finishes ERECTION OF PRECAST ELEMENTS CASTING HOLLOW CORE PLANKS Safe erection of precast concrete elements depends on  Pre-cast elemens are manufactured in casting beds, careful planning. All people working with precast 800 ft or more in length concrete should be aware of the risks  High-strength steel strands are strung the length of the bed and tensioned. PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION  Conventional reinforcing, weld plates, blackouts, CONSIDERATION lifting loops, and other embedded items are added as  Erection Sequence/Plan - Precast concrete needed members shall be erected according to preplanned  Concrete is placed sequence  Once the concrete has cured to sufficient strength,  Erection Safety - Safety during the handling and the castings are cut into sections of desired length erection of precast concrete elements is  In some cases, transverse bulkheads are inserted to substantially important. divide the casting bed into sections before concrete is  Erection Tolerances - The precast unit should be placed. In this case, only the prestressing strands erected in accordance with the tolerances provided need to be cut to separate the sections. by applicable codes, unless other tolerances are  Individual sections are lifted from the casting bed and used in the design and specifications. stockpiled to await shipping to the construction site  Temporary Bracing - Precast concrete elements must be adequately braced and supported during all TRANSPORTATION OF PRE-CAST ELEMENTS phases of erection Transportation of precast elements shouild be planned  Leveling Shims - leveling shims carry the full according to the general erection sequence to minimize construction load of the precast element and must unnecessary site storage and handling. provide adequate support to prevent movement until the element is incorporated in the main PRECAST CONCRETE TRANSPORTION structure. CONSIDERATIONS  Rigging/Lifting - A rigging system for handling  Strength of the Precast Concrete Material and erecting precast elements requires careful and  Dimensions of the Precast Concrete Material (Height, thorough preplanning. Mass, Width)  Vehicle for Transportation ERECTION VEHICLES  Delivery Route/Contingencies TRANSPORTATION VEHICLES RIGGING TECHNIQUES  A-Frames  Flat Deck Trailer  A-Frame Trailer  Purpose-Built Super Low Loader  Inverted A-Frame Trailer  Lorry Crane PREFABRICATION SYSTEM OPEN PREFABRICATION SYSTEM BAHAY MAKABAYAN Open prefab systems based on an appropriate Real estate company Bahay Makabayan's main objective production level and small,easily to handle elements is to give Filipinos respectable, high-quality homes that with rationalized production methods they can afford. Bahay Makabayan, which has adopted Partial Prefabrication Open System the concept of building modular homes in the Full Prefabrication Open System Philippines, provides housing possibilities to everyone with homes constructed utilizing techniques that have MODULAR PREFABRICATION SYSTEM been shown to be better, effective, and efficient Modular construction consists of building box like P15, 000 Earthquake-resilient and flood-resistant structures (modules) within a factory-controlled environment and then shipping the completed modules FABRICATION AND ERECTION OF STRUCTURAL to a site for assembly. STEEL ELEMENTS  Faster construction STRUCTURAL STEEL  Greater degree of predictability in cost DEFINED AS STEEL SHAPED FOR USE IN  Less dependency of weather and site conditions CONSTRUCTION.  Reduced material waste and transport carbon It is also known as carbon steel as it has a carbon emissions content of up to 2.1% by weight. These are  Increased safety to workers manufactured in section and plate shapes and are  Limited ability to change the structure through normally used in bridges, buildings, ships, and pipelines. future renovations PANEL PREFABRICATION SYSTEM - Hybrid building method which marries the efficiency of prefab with the design flexibility and quality of a stick-built structures. HOW IS STRUCTURAL STEEL FABRICATED? LARGE PANEL SYSTEM STRUCTURAL STEEL FABRICATION CROSS-WALL SYSTEM - The main walls that resist It is a secondary manufacturing process that gravity and lateral loads are placed inthe short direction involvesworking on products from primary processes to of the building create a metal part or structure that is suitable for end - LONGITUDINAL-WALL SYSTEM - The walls resisting use. gravity and lateral loads are placed inthe longitudinal Examples of these processes are cutting, bending, and direction joining. SKELETON FABRICATION SYSTEM - Consists of PRIMARY MANUFACTURING PROCESS structural elements such as columns, beams, and Creates simple, semi-finished metal products such as roofing elements. plates, sheets, tubes, and bars. SECONDARY MANUFACTURING PROCESS PREFABRICATION HOUSING IN THE The semi-finished metal products are reshaped, joined PHILIPPINES and modified to suit customer requirement. SMART HOUSE PHILIPPINES SmartHouse PH is a group of investors that focuses on providing homes by applying art systems that are cost and time efficient. After relentless research on innovative housing systems, our managers, engineers, and architects have come up with an impeccable approach in providing comfortable homes for masses with meager means. CONTAINER "people of the mass" Rolling Mill CUBO MODULAR INC. is an awardwinnning renowned and globally company due to their innovative modular construction technology. P89,000.00 ENGINEERED BAMBOO Plasma Cutting 4 PRIMARY TASKS BEFORE STRUCTURAL STEEL Cutting ERECTION 1.Ensuring the foundations are safe and suitable. 2.Cranes are used to lift, and bolted connections are used to secure components in place but will not be fully tightened. 3.Making sure the alignment of the building- checking if columns are lined up, levelled and plumb. 4. Completing all bolted connections to secure and make Bending the frame rigid METHODS OF FASTENING 1. Bolt Connections - Methods of Tightening Bolts a. Snug Tight - tightness that exists when the plies of the joint are in firm contact but not fully tensioned. b. TURN OF NUT - The bolts must first be tightened to a snug tight condition, then the nut must be turned in accordance with thes pecifications of the code. c. CALIBRATED WRENCH - It uses a pneumatic impact wrench powered by compressed air or Joining electricity 2. Weld Connections - Types of Welding a. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) - It is a fusion welding process that uses a consumable, flux-coated electrode, and a weld pool to accomplish a weld. b. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) - It is an arc welding process that uses a consumable wire Finishing electrode and shielding gas, which a welding gun feeds to the joint. Weld Positions REASONS FOR FABRICATING STRUCTURAL STEEL  Durability and Strength  Environment-Friendly Metal  Potential for Customization  Cost-efffective HOW IS STRUCTURAL STEEL ERECTED? STRUCTURAL STEEL ERECTION Involves lifting and placing components into position then connecting them together. Mobile Elevating Work Platforms (MEWPs) and cranes are predominantly used in the erection of steel structures for buildings and bridges. TUNNELING TECHNOLOGY DESIGN PARAMETERS INTRODUCTION The design of a tunnel depends on several factors, TUNNELS are underground passageways constructed including: through a variety of rock or soil materials.  Purpose of the tunnel The purpose of tunnels varies, and they can be used for  Site conditions transportation, water supply, sewage, hydroelectric  Tunnel dimensions power, mining, and other purposes.  Excavation method  Ventilation Tunnels can be broadly classified into the following  Drainage categories based on their purpose:  Fire protection Transportation tunnels  Traffic and safety systems Utility tunnels  Environmental considerations Mining tunnels Hydroelectric power tunnels TUNNEL DRAINAGE SYSTEMS Sewage tunnels Tunnel drainage systems are essential for removing water that may enter the tunnel during construction and operation. There are various types of tunnel Historical background of tunnel construction drainage systems, including: The ancient Greeks and Romans were known for their  Dewatering wells tunnel engineering, with tunnels used for aqueducts,  Drainage galleries sewage systems, and transportation.  Sumps In the Middle Ages, tunnels were built for defensive  Pumps purposes, such as secret escape routes or to conduct surprise attacks on enemy fortresses. TUNNEL LININGS / SUPPORT SYSTEMS In the modern era, tunnel construction advanced There are several types of tunnel linings and support significantly with the introduction of drilling and blasting systems used in tunnel construction, and the choice of techniques in the 1800s which one to use depends on various factors including The development of the tunnel boring machine (TBM) the geological conditions, the purpose of the tunnel, the in the mid-1900s further revolutionized tunnel method of construction, and the budget. Some of the construction by allowing for faster and more efficient most common types of tunnel linings and support systems include: excavation. a. Shotcrete Lining - a procedure of transferring high-performance concrete or mortar through a GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS hose and pneumatically projected at high velocity to line the interior of the structure. Geological factors play a significant role in the feasibility and design of a tunnel construction project. Some of the important geological factors that affect tunnel construction include:  Rock or soil type  Rock mass quality  Geological structures b. Steel Rib Support - Steel rib support is a  Groundwater conventional method used in tunneling to provide  Seismicity immediate structural support during excavation.  Slope Stability Steel ribs are typically installed in a circular or  Environmental considerations arched shape, allowing them to resist loads from the surrounding ground or rock. DESIGNING OF TUNNELS Tunnel design determines the most effective and efficient means of excavating a tunnel based on the geologic conditions and intended use of the tunnel. The design process generally involves the following steps:  Establish the purpose of the tunnel  Geologic and geotechnical investigation c. Cip Concrete Lining (Cast-in-Place) - CIP  Tunnel alignment concrete lining involves placing concrete directly  Tunnel cross-section into the tunnel in its final location to form a rigid  Support system and permanent lining. This method provides a  Ventilation and drainage robust structural shell  Construction methods to ensure long-term  Cost estimation stability and waterproofing of the tunnel. d. Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) - A TBM is a TUNNEL EXCAVATION & CONSTRUCTION specialized machine used for excavating tunnels METHODS through different types of ground. It consists of a Tunnel excavation and construction methods vary rotating cutting wheel at the front that breaks the depending on the geological conditions, tunnel length material, followed by a series of conveyor belts to and diameter, and other factors. Here are some of the remove the debris. most common tunnel excavation and construction methods: a. Drill and blast method: The drill and blast method is a traditional technique used for the excavation of tunnels and involves drilling holes into the rock or soil, filling the holes with explosives, and then detonating the explosives to fragment the rock or soil. The fragmented rock or soil is then removed e. Ground Freezing - Ground freezing is a soil using machinery or manual labor. stabilization technique where the ground around a tunnel or excavation site is artificially frozen using a refrigerant, forming a solid barrier of ice. This frozen wall provides support and prevents water ingress, allowing excavation to proceed safely. b. Tunnel boring machine (TBM) method: The Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) method is a popular technique used for excavating tunnels in a variety of geological conditions. A TBM is a large cylindrical f. Rock, Bolts and Mesh – Rock bolts are long, steel machine that can excavate through various types of rods that are drilled into rock or soil to provide soil and rock by using a rotating cutter head with stabilization by transferring loads from the unstable disc cutters, which can excavate the tunnel face surface layers to more stable ground or rock strata. while simultaneously installing the tunnel lining Wire mesh is often used with rock bolts to provide The TBM method typically involves the following surface support and prevent loose rock or debris steps: from falling.  Excavation of the launch shaft  TBM assembly and launch.  TBM excavation  Muck removal  Tunnel lining installation  TBM retrieval c. New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) / Sequential excavation method (SEM) g. Fiber-Reinforced Shotcrete – Fiber-reinforced The New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) is a shotcrete is a variation of shotcrete that method of tunnel construction that was developed in incorporates fibers (typically steel or synthetic) into the 1960s in Austria. It is also known as the the mix to enhance the tensile strength and sequential excavation method (SEM). NATM involves durability of the sprayed concrete. The fibers help excavating the tunnel in small sections or “drifts,” improve the usually around 3-4 meters in length, and then material's resistance immediately reinforcing the excavated section with a to cracking and layer of shotcrete and rock bolts or steel ribs. The provide additional surrounding rock or soil provides additional support. support. d. Cut and cover method: The cut-and-cover method is a technique used for the construction of shallow h. Pre-cast Linings – tunnels or underground structures. In this method, a Pre-cast linings are concrete segments that are trench is excavated in the ground and the structure manufactured off-site and transported to the is built inside it. The trench is then covered back with tunnel. These segments are assembled within the the excavated material or a precast concrete slab tunnel to form a continuous, rigid structure that provides support and protection. e. Clay Kicking Method: This method is used for strong clayey soil conditions. This is an old method and used for small works like sewage pipes installations etc. In this method, a hole is excavated into the ground and after some depth tunnel is excavated which is done by the clay kicker which lies 0n a plank at 45o angle. An excavating tool is provided under clay kicker foot. The excavated using that tool is collected by other workers f. Shaft Method: In this method tunnel is constructed at greater depth from the ground surface. The shaft is built up to the depth where tunnel is required. g. Shield tunneling: It is an underground excavation method in which a shield machine with a metal shell is used to excavate ground and install lining supports under the protection of the metal shell. The shield machine completes the operations, including ground excavation, muck removal, segment assembly, machine advancement, and others. h. Box Jacking Method: Box jacking method is similar to pipe jacking, but in this case instead of pipes, specially made boxes are driven into the soil. A cutting head is provided at the front side of the box. Excavated matter is collected within the box. Larger size tunnels can be excavated using box jacks up to 20 meters. i. Pipe Jacking Method: Pipe jacking method is used to construct tunnels under existing structures like road ways, railways etc. In this method, specially made pipes are driven into underground using hydraulic jacks. Maximum size of 3.2-meter diameter is allowed for tunnels. j. Underwater Tunnels: An underwater tunnel is a structure that is built underwater to make a way through it. Method: - Immersed Tunneling  Concrete Tunnels  Steel Tunnels Primary Operations in Immersed Tunnel Construction a. Tunnel Element Fabrication b. Seabed Preparation c. Jointing d. Launching and Sinking e. Backfilling Tunneling Projects in the PH 1. Davao City Bypass Project 2. Metro Manila Subway Project