Progressive Movement & US Imperialism Review Notes PDF

Origins of the Progressive Movement The Progressive Movement emerged in response to the excesses of the Gilded Age (1870s–1900), a time marked by the dominance of big business, political corruption, and vast inequality. The late 19th century saw a rapid expansion of industrialization, which led to...

Origins of the Progressive Movement The Progressive Movement emerged in response to the excesses of the Gilded Age (1870s–1900), a time marked by the dominance of big business, political corruption, and vast inequality. The late 19th century saw a rapid expansion of industrialization, which led to the growth of cities and the rise of powerful corporations, many of which exploited workers in dangerous conditions for minimal pay. At the same time, wealth became increasingly concentrated in the hands of a few industrial magnates, while the majority of the population lived in poverty or struggled to make a living. The Populist Party, which emerged in the late 19th century, had already raised concerns about the power of corporations, especially in agriculture, and the need for reform in the political system. However, the Progressive Movement was broader and more urban in scope. It was composed of reformers from various walks of life, including middle-class professionals, labor leaders, intellectuals, social activists, and women’s suffrage advocates, all of whom sought to address the negative consequences of industrialization. Progressivism was not a single unified ideology but rather a broad, diverse movement that called for changes in the political system, social structure, and economy. At its core, Progressivism sought to curb the power of large corporations, limit political corruption, and improve the lives of ordinary Americans. Reformers believed that government intervention was necessary to address the problems caused by industrial capitalism. Key Reform Areas 1. Political Reform One of the central aims of the Progressive Movement was to combat political corruption and create a more accountable and responsive government. Political corruption was rampant during the Gilded Age, with political machines like Tammany Hall in New York City exerting control over local politics through patronage and bribes. The influence of corporate money in politics, coupled with the dominance of powerful political parties, led to widespread distrust in the political system. Several key reforms were introduced to address these issues: Direct Primaries: Political parties initially chose candidates for office through party conventions, which were often controlled by political bosses. Progressives pushed for the direct primary system, allowing voters to select party candidates directly rather than through backroom deals. This helped to reduce the power of political machines and made the selection of candidates more democratic. Initiative, Referendum, and Recall: Progressives sought to give voters more direct control over the political process. The initiative allowed citizens to propose laws, while the referendum allowed voters to approve or reject laws passed by the legislature. The recall allowed voters to remove elected officials from office before their term ended. These reforms were designed to reduce the power of corrupt politicians and give more power to the people.  17th Amendment: The direct election of U.S. Senators was another key goal of the Progressives. Before the 17th Amendment (1913), Senators were chosen by state legislatures, a system that was vulnerable to corruption and manipulation by powerful business interests. The 17th Amendment allowed for the direct election of Senators, thus reducing the influence of political machines and corporate lobbying on federal legislation. 2. Labor Reform The rise of industrialization created severe economic inequality and exploitation of workers, many of whom worked long hours in dangerous conditions for low wages. Progressive reformers sought to address these issues by advocating for labor rights and protections. Key labor reforms during the Progressive Era included: Child Labor Laws: One of the most urgent issues for Progressives was the exploitation of children in factories and mines. Children as young as five or six were put to work in dangerous conditions, often for very long hours. Progressives lobbied for laws to limit child labor, and although these laws were not fully implemented until the 1930s, the movement made significant strides toward ending the practice. Workplace Safety: The Progressive Movement also focused on improving workplace conditions. Unsafe conditions in factories, such as inadequate ventilation, lack of fire escapes, and dangerous machinery, were common. Progressives advocated for laws that required employers to provide safe working environments. The Occupational Safety and Health Act and the establishment of the U.S. Department of Labor helped to address some of these issues, though many reforms would come after the Progressive Era. Minimum Wage Laws: Another key issue for Progressives was the establishment of a minimum wage. Many workers were paid below the poverty line, and the movement advocated for laws that would guarantee a living wage. The first minimum wage laws were passed in the 1910s, though they applied mostly to women and children. The broader establishment of minimum wage laws would come after the Great Depression. Workers' Compensation: As industries expanded, workplace accidents became more common. Progressives pushed for workers' compensation laws to provide financial assistance to workers who were injured on the job. These laws were implemented at the state level and eventually led to national legislation. 3. Women's Rights and Suffrage Women’s rights were also a major focus of the Progressive Movement, particularly the fight for women’s suffrage. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, women in the U.S. were largely excluded from political and economic power, though many were active in social reform movements. The Women's Suffrage Movement had been active for decades, but it gained momentum during the Progressive Era. Reformers like Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Alice Paul led efforts to secure the right to vote for women. In 1920, after decades of activism, the 19th Amendment was passed, granting women the right to vote. In addition to suffrage, the Progressive Movement also focused on other issues related to women’s rights, including: Access to Education: Progressives supported increased educational opportunities for women, particularly at the university level. Women’s colleges were founded, and women were increasingly allowed into previously male-dominated academic institutions. Social Reforms for Women: Women, particularly in urban areas, began to demand better living conditions, including access to affordable housing, healthcare, and sanitation. Progressive-era reforms addressed some of these issues through the establishment of public health programs, child care, and maternity leave. 4. Economic Reform and Trust Busting The rise of powerful trusts and monopolies in the late 19th century was one of the primary concerns of the Progressive Movement. Business magnates like John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie, and J.P. Morgan controlled vast swaths of the American economy, often at the expense of smaller competitors and consumers. Progressives sought to regulate these corporations and promote competition in the market. Key reforms in this area included: Antitrust Laws: The most famous example of Progressive-era trust busting was President Theodore Roosevelt's use of the Sherman Antitrust Act and the Clayton Antitrust Act to break up monopolies in industries like railroads, oil, and steel. Roosevelt’s administration filed lawsuits against trusts such as Standard Oil and the Northern Securities Company to ensure that corporations did not abuse their power. Regulation of Business Practices: The Progressive Era saw the establishment of several federal agencies aimed at regulating business practices. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC), created in 1914, was tasked with investigating and preventing unfair business practices. The Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), which had been created earlier in the century, was given more power to regulate railroads and other industries. Income Tax: Progressives advocated for a more equitable tax system. The 16th Amendment (1913) allowed for the implementation of a federal income tax, which taxed the wealthy at higher rates. This was seen as a way to address income inequality and fund public services. 5. Environmental Reform The Progressive Era also saw the rise of environmental conservation as a national concern. The expansion of industrialization and urbanization had led to significant environmental degradation, and Progressives sought to preserve natural resources and establish national parks. Conservation Movement: Led by figures like Theodore Roosevelt and John Muir, the conservation movement aimed to preserve natural resources for future generations. Roosevelt, in particular, used his presidency to protect millions of acres of public land and establish national parks, forests, and monuments.  Regulation of Resources: Progressives also sought to regulate industries that exploited natural resources, such as mining and logging. The Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act of 1906 were among the first federal laws aimed at ensuring the safety of food and medicine, as well as promoting environmental and public health standards. Conclusion The Progressive Movement, while not without its flaws, fundamentally reshaped American society in the early 20th century. It laid the groundwork for many of the social, political, and economic reforms that would continue throughout the 20th century, from the New Deal to the Civil Rights Movement. By addressing political corruption, improving labor conditions, expanding women's rights, and regulating big business, the Progressives sought to create a more just and equitable society. The movement left a lasting legacy, influencing the future course of American politics and governance. The Roots of U.S. Imperialism (1850-1890), Although the U.S. had historically focused on territorial expansion within North America, the mid- to-late 19th century saw the growth of imperialist ideologies that would push the country to expand its reach beyond the continent. Several key factors influenced this shift, including the desire for economic growth, military interests, and the belief in the racial superiority of Anglo-Saxon culture. Manifest Destiny and the Expansion Westward In the 19th century, the U.S. expanded westward with the doctrine of Manifest Destiny, a belief that Americans were divinely ordained to spread their civilization across the North American continent. The acquisition of territories like Texas, California, and much of the Southwest from Mexico following the Mexican-American War (1846-1848) was an early example of imperial expansion. After the Civil War, however, the U.S. was not focused on territorial expansion in North America; instead, it began to look outward to new opportunities for economic growth, especially in Asia and Latin America. The completion of the Transcontinental Railroad in 1869 linked the East and West coasts, cementing the U.S. as a continental power and laying the groundwork for future foreign engagement. Economic Motivations for Imperialism By the 1870s and 1880s, the United States had become an industrial power, with expanding factories, increasing production, and growing surplus goods. Industrialists and business leaders looked beyond the country’s borders for new markets and sources of raw materials. This economic need to secure overseas markets and natural resources was one of the most significant drivers of imperialism. In particular, U.S. entrepreneurs began looking to Asia, particularly China, as a potential market for goods. The growing influence of the West in Asia—especially the colonial presence of European powers like Great Britain and France—was seen as an opportunity for the U.S. to expand its economic and political power in the region. Military and Naval Interests A key figure in shaping U.S. imperial ambitions was Alfred Thayer Mahan, a U.S. naval officer whose book, The Influence of Sea Power upon History (1890), argued that national greatness and prosperity were closely tied to maritime power. Mahan’s ideas had a profound effect on U.S. policy, leading to the development of a powerful navy and the construction of naval bases across the globe, including in the Caribbean and Pacific. In 1898, the U.S. Navy expanded greatly as the country began to focus on projecting its power beyond the Western Hemisphere. The Rise of U.S. Imperialism (1890-1900) By the 1890s, the U.S. had moved from continental expansion to a more global approach, with territorial acquisitions and military interventions outside of North America. Several key events and policies during this decade signaled the country’s growing imperialism. The Influence of the Spanish-American War (1898) The Spanish-American War was a turning point in U.S. imperialism. The conflict arose from U.S. support for Cuban independence, as well as the explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor, which was blamed on Spain (though the cause is still debated). The war resulted in a decisive victory for the U.S. over Spain and led to the acquisition of several overseas territories, marking the beginning of the U.S.’s emergence as a colonial power. In the Treaty of Paris (1898), Spain ceded control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the U.S. The Philippines, in particular, became a symbol of U.S. imperial ambitions in Asia. The acquisition of these territories was seen by many as evidence of the U.S. asserting its power on the global stage. However, the annexation of the Philippines was controversial, sparking an anti- imperialist movement that argued the U.S. should not engage in imperial conquests. Annexation of Hawaii (1898) The annexation of Hawaii in 1898 was another significant event that expanded U.S. imperial influence. Hawaii had long been a strategic location for the U.S. military, particularly as a stopover for ships traveling between the U.S. and Asia. The U.S. had also developed strong economic ties to Hawaii, especially in the sugar industry. Following the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy, the U.S. formally annexed Hawaii, making it a U.S. territory. The Open Door Policy (1899-1900) As American business interests sought to expand in China, U.S. policymakers promoted the Open Door Policy, which called for equal trade rights for all nations in China. The policy was motivated by economic interests in securing access to Chinese markets, as well as a desire to ensure that China did not fall under the control of any single European power. The policy’s impact was felt throughout Asia, as the U.S. began to assert its influence in the Pacific, with a particular focus on securing access to China's vast markets. The Philippine-American War (1899-1902) Following the Spanish-American War, the U.S. faced significant resistance to its control of the Philippines, leading to the Philippine-American War (1899-1902). Filipino nationalists, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, sought independence from Spain and resented U.S. control over their country. The war resulted in brutal suppression of the Filipino insurgents by U.S. forces, with significant civilian casualties and widespread atrocities. The conflict exposed the complexities of imperialism for the U.S., as many Americans questioned the morality of annexing and subjugating another people. Ultimately, the U.S. retained control of the Philippines until 1946, though the war and subsequent suppression of the insurgency demonstrated the costs of imperial control. The U.S. as a Global Power (1900-1914) After the turn of the century, the U.S. continued to expand its influence across the globe, with a particular focus on Latin America, Asia, and the Pacific. The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1904) President Theodore Roosevelt's Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1904) asserted the right of the U.S. to intervene in the affairs of Latin American countries to stabilize their economies and maintain order. This policy was intended to prevent European powers from intervening in the Western Hemisphere, effectively expanding the U.S.’s role as a hegemonic power in the Americas. The Roosevelt Corollary was used to justify U.S. interventions in countries like the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Panama. The U.S. military was frequently deployed in the region to safeguard American economic interests and political stability. Construction of the Panama Canal (1904-1914) The construction of the Panama Canal was another major achievement of U.S. imperialism during this period. The canal, which linked the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, was of strategic importance for U.S. military and economic interests. After facilitating Panama’s separation from Colombia, the U.S. gained control of the canal zone and completed its construction in 1914. The canal transformed global trade and solidified the U.S.’s dominance in the Western Hemisphere. Imperialism in the Pacific and China The U.S. continued to assert its imperial influence in the Pacific and China during this period. In the Pacific, the U.S. established control over the Philippines, Guam, and Hawaii, while in China, the U.S. worked to expand its economic influence through the Open Door Policy. The U.S. also engaged in military interventions in countries like Nicaragua and Haiti, reflecting its broader imperial goals. The End of the Era of U.S. Imperialism (1914-1920) By the time World War I erupted in 1914, U.S. imperialism began to shift. The war marked the beginning of a new phase in global politics, with the U.S. becoming increasingly involved in international affairs. `Big Stick Diplomacy (Theodore Roosevelt) The phrase "Big Stick Diplomacy" comes from Theodore Roosevelt's famous saying, "Speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far." This policy emphasized the use of military force, particularly the U.S. Navy, to achieve U.S. goals abroad. Roosevelt believed that the United States should act as a police power in the Western Hemisphere to ensure stability and protect American interests. Under Big Stick Diplomacy, Roosevelt advocated for a strong, assertive military presence, often intervening in Latin American and Caribbean affairs to prevent European powers from gaining influence. Roosevelt used this policy to justify several military interventions and expansions of U.S. power during his presidency, including: The Panama Canal: Roosevelt believed the construction of the canal was vital for U.S. economic and military interests, and the U.S. used its influence to help Panama gain independence from Colombia, subsequently securing control over the canal zone. The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1904): This extension of the Monroe Doctrine asserted that the U.S. had the right to intervene in Latin American countries to stabilize their economies and prevent European intervention. Roosevelt used this corollary as a justification for military interventions in places like the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Nicaragua. Big Stick Diplomacy reflected Roosevelt’s belief in U.S. superiority and the need for an active, sometimes coercive role in global affairs. It made the U.S. a dominant force in the Western Hemisphere and signaled its readiness to use military force to protect its interests. Dollar Diplomacy (William Howard Taft) Dollar Diplomacy was the foreign policy strategy adopted by President William Howard Taft, which focused on using economic power—specifically investment and loans—to achieve American interests abroad. Instead of direct military intervention, Taft believed that the U.S. could extend its influence by encouraging American businesses to invest in foreign countries, particularly in Latin America and East Asia, while also maintaining stability and avoiding European interference. Dollar Diplomacy was aimed at promoting American commercial and financial interests by supporting the governments of other countries that were friendly to U.S. economic activity. In practice, this meant encouraging U.S. banks and businesses to invest heavily in Latin American countries and even using U.S. military power to protect those investments when necessary. In Latin America: Taft’s administration promoted U.S. business investment in Central America and the Caribbean, particularly in countries like Nicaragua, Honduras, and the Dominican Republic. In cases where U.S. investments were threatened, Taft sent in U.S. troops to maintain order and protect American economic interests. In East Asia: Taft also extended Dollar Diplomacy to China, where the U.S. sought to maintain an open door for American businesses in the Chinese market, competing with European powers for economic influence. Dollar Diplomacy was designed to achieve U.S. goals with less direct military confrontation than Roosevelt’s approach. However, it often resulted in the U.S. being perceived as an economic imperialist, prioritizing American financial interests over the sovereignty and well-being of other nations. Moral Diplomacy (Woodrow Wilson) Moral Diplomacy, articulated by President Woodrow Wilson, was a foreign policy that sought to promote democratic values, self-determination, and moral principles in international relations. Unlike his predecessors, Wilson emphasized the importance of supporting nations that shared American democratic ideals and avoiding support for authoritarian or dictatorial regimes. His approach was rooted in the belief that the U.S. should help spread democracy and freedom around the world, not just through economic or military power but by setting an example for other nations. While Wilson's idealism focused on spreading democracy, his policies often contradicted these principles in practice. He promoted international peace and cooperation through organizations like the League of Nations, yet he was also willing to use force when U.S. interests were threatened. Intervention in Latin America: Wilson claimed that Moral Diplomacy would lead to the spread of democracy, but he sent U.S. forces into Latin America on several occasions to protect U.S. interests and intervene in political crises. In Mexico, Wilson intervened in the Mexican Revolution and even sent troops to Veracruz in 1914 to protect American interests during political unrest. Similarly, he sent troops to Haiti and the Dominican Republic to stabilize governments there and protect U.S. financial investments. Support for the Allies in World War I: Wilson's stance during World War I was largely based on moral diplomacy, as he presented the U.S. entry into the war in 1917 as a crusade to make the world "safe for democracy." However, his vision of international peace through cooperation clashed with the realities of global politics. Despite the idealistic rhetoric of Moral Diplomacy, Wilson’s actions often showed a more pragmatic approach that prioritized U.S. strategic and economic interests. His idealism was tempered by the reality of maintaining American power and influence during a time of global conflict.