Research Module: A Comprehensive Guide PDF

RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH PROCESS Overview Doing research can have a huge impact on your life as a student, even if you don’t realize it. As you embark in your journey of conducting your own research, it is important for you to be equipped with...

RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH PROCESS Overview Doing research can have a huge impact on your life as a student, even if you don’t realize it. As you embark in your journey of conducting your own research, it is important for you to be equipped with the basics of research. Through this, you will be able to appreciate the value of research in your chosen field. This chapter contains the comprehensive description of the following:  Meaning and importance of research  Characteristics of research  Types of research  Research process Objective At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to: 1. Discuss the meaning and importance of research. 2. Identify the characteristics of research. 3. Enumerate the types of research. 4. Explain the research process. Lesson 1 - Meaning and Importance of Research Pre-discussion In the K-12 curriculum, wherein you are part of it, you have experienced conducting research particularly in Senior High School. Can you still recall your experiences? How is your experience related with the comics below? CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 1  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE Figure 1. Graduate student experience in their thesis. What to expect? At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to: 1. Define research. 2. Explain the importance of doing research. 3. Appreciate the impact of research in life. Lesson Outline There are several definitions of research, proposed by famous authors and scholars of their time. You will find out that the basic meaning and the context of these definitions are same. The difference between these definitions lies only in the way the author has undertaken research in his discipline. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 2  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE - Research as a process is a systematic way of arriving at answers to substantial and well-defined problems (Padua, 2000). - Searching for theory, for testing theory or for solving a problem. It means a problem exist and has been identified and that the solution of the problem is necessary (Sevilla, 1992). - Research comprises “creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications” (OECD, 2002). - Scientific research is a systematic way of gathering data, a harnessing of curiosity. This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines. Scientific research is a widely used criterion for judging the standing of an academic institution, such as business schools, but some argue that such is an inaccurate assessment of the institution, because the quality of research does not tell about the quality of teaching (these do not necessarily correlate totally) (Armstrong and Sperry, 1994). - A broad definition of research is given by Shuttleworth (2008) – “In the broadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes any gathering of data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge”. - Another definition of research is given by Creswell who states that – “Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 3  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE to increase our understanding of a topic or issue”. It consists of three steps: Pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question (Creswell 2008). - Importance of Research Finding reasons why research is important may seem like a no-brainer, but many would rather avoid getting involved in the research. The lazy, if not mentally drained, student could say, "Not again." And a disinterested academic could just be doing it for promotion purposes. Yet, for those who like to learn - whether or not they are members of a learning institution - doing research is not just an imperative, but a need. What reasons could drive one to appreciate the research and engage in doing it? There are different reasons why research is important, as listed below. 1. A Tool for Building New Knowledge and Solve Societal Problems Research is significant because it serves as a tool generate new knowledge. Padua (2000) stated that if there are more users of knowledge than producers of knowledge, there would be more world problems that will be left unsolved, thus confounding the miserable state of human existence. In order to solve real-world problems, experts must work together to make it happen. 2. An Aid to Business Success and Job Search Research has a vital role in business. Many successful companies, such as those that produce consumer goods or mass-market items, invest in research and development or R&D. Different business industries with science and engineering processes like agriculture, food and beverage, manufacturing, healthcare and pharmaceuticals, computer software, semiconductor, information and communication technology, construction, robotics, aerospace, aviation, and energy have high R&D expenditure because it is critical to product innovation and to improving services. The unemployed can also benefit from doing research. Through this process, not only will they increase their chances of finding potential CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 4  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE employers either through job posting sites or employment agencies, but it can inform them if work opportunities are legitimate. Without research, the gullible, yet hopeful jobseeker may fall prey to unscrupulous headhunters who might be involved in illegal recruitment and/or human trafficking. 3. Means to Understand Various Issues Television shows and movies ooze with research - both on the part of the writer(s) and the actors. Though there are hosts who rely on their researchers, there are also those who exert effort to do their own research. This helps them get information that hired researchers missed, build a good rapport with the interviewee, and conduct a good interview in the process. For their part, some film and TV actors would take time to interview detectives, boxers, scientists, business people, criminals, and teachers, among others. Others would even immerse themselves in situations that would make them understand social and personal issues like living behind bars or in a drug rehabilitation center. Many would read literature, biographies, or journals to have a better view or context of the story. 4. A Way to Prove Lies and to Support Truths Scientists also deal with research to test the validity and reliability of their claims or those of other scientists'. Their integrity and competence depend on the quality - and not just quantity - of their research. Nonetheless, not everything scientists come up with get accepted or learned by everyone, especially when factors like religion, state suppression, and access to resources and social services (e.g., education and adequate health programs) either feed the poor majority with lies or deter them from knowing truths to preserve the status quo. 5. A Seed to Love Reading, Writing, Analyzing, and Sharing Valuable Information The research entails both reading and writing. These two literacy functions help enable computation and comprehension. Without these skills, it is less likely for anyone to appreciate and get involved in the research. Reading CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 5  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE opens the mind to a vast horizon of knowledge, while writing helps a reader use her/his own perspective and transform this into a more concrete idea that s/he understands. Apart from reading and writing, listening and speaking are also integral in conducting research. Interviews, attending knowledge-generating events, and casual talks with anyone certainly aid in formulating research topics. They can also facilitate the critical thinking process. Listening to experts discuss the merits of their studies helps the listener to analyze a certain issue and write about such analysis. As literacy is integral in improving a person's social and economic mobility and in increasing awareness, research then hones necessary basic life skills and makes learning a life-long endeavor. 6. Nourishment and Exercise for the Mind Curiosity may kill not just the cat, but the human as well. Yet, it is the same curiosity that fuels the mind to seek for answers. Research and doing research encourage people to explore possibilities, to understand existing issues, and to disclose truths and fabricated ones. Without research, technological advancement and other developments could have remained a fantasy. Reading, writing, observing, analyzing, and interacting with others facilitate an inquisitive mind's quest for knowledge and efficient learning. Research serves as an instrument to achieve that goal. 7. Review policies that must be revised and programs of actions that demand modification. A researcher should also communicate the results of the study in a non-academic community such as the law-makers through the policy brief. It is a short summary of what is known about a particular issue or problem. The main purpose is to succinctly evaluate policy options regarding a specific issue for a specific policy-maker audience. Policy makers need to make practical decisions under time-constraints, so the brief should provide evidence and actionable recommendations. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 6  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE 8. Improve Living Conditions. Basic research has led to some of the most commercially successful and life-saving discoveries of the past century, including the laser, vaccines and drugs, and the development of radio and television. It is undeniable that the researchers’ creativity, tenacity and passion lead to tackling and solving big challenges such as climate change, food security, life-threatening diseases and artificial intelligence improving our way of living. Summary Research is a systematic investigation (i.e., the gathering and analysis of information) designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge. Research is important because it serves as a tool for building knowledge and solve societal problems; an aid to business success and job search; means to understand various issues; a way to prove lies and to support truths; a seed to love reading, writing, analyzing and sharing valuable information; nourishment and exercise to mind; review policies and improve living conditions. Assessment 1. List down 20 keywords that you can think when you encounter the word “research”. Make a brief discussion using the keywords with emphasis on the meaning and importance of research. Enrichment 1. Creativity and innovation have been highlighted as essential skills for the 21st century. These skills are important when doing research. Watch the video of Ilona Stengel on Ted.com entitled: The role of human emotions in science and research using the link: https://www.ted.com/talks/ilona_stengel_ the_role_of_human_emotions_in_science_and_research#t-664. Write your reflection of the video using this format: brief summary of the video and insights about it. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 7  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE Lesson 2 – Characteristics and Types of Research Pre-discussion It was highlighted in the speech of Ilona Stengel that a researcher should be creative and innovative. Have a self-reflection of your positive attitudes that you believed is significant in conducting different types of research. What to expect? At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to: 1. Explain the characteristics of a good research. 2. Differentiate the types and classification of research. 3. Discuss action research. Lesson Outline Characteristics of Good Research Every research study, irrespective of its type, should meet some criterions so that it can be classified as good research as enumerated by Singh (2015). 1. One of the important characteristics of a good research is about solving problems. It was emphasized by Henson and Soriano (1999) that research aims to find answers to problems raised. 2. A research should be systematic (procedures adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain logical sequence through data collection, analysis and interpretation). 3. A research is critical. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny. 4. A research is empirical. Conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from data collected from real life experiences. 5. A good research has clearly defined purpose. A research study with clearly defined purpose finds a wider acceptance and acknowledgment within the research community. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 8  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE 6. A research has clearly defined method with sufficient detail. This will allow the repetition of the study in future for further advancement, while maintaining the continuity of what has been done in the past. 7. A research has limitations and assumptions made by the researcher during the course of the study. This will support the findings of the research study, in case someone tries to validate the study findings. 8. A research has a well-planned research design in order to generate objective results. This will provide an easier understanding about the findings of the research. 9. A research has sufficient data to investigate the problem. The researcher should carefully check the reliability and validity of the data. 10. A good research depends a great deal on the integrity and commitment of the researcher. - Types and Classification of Research A common question that researchers get from students and the general public is "what is your research good for?" To answer this question, it is best to establish the difference between basic (fundamental) and applied research. 1. Fundamental or basic research - Basic research is an investigation on basic principles and reasons for occurrence of a particular event or process or phenomenon. It is also called theoretical research. Study or investigation of some natural phenomenon or relating to pure science are termed as basic research. Basic researches sometimes may not lead to immediate use or application. It is not concerned with solving any practical problems of immediate interest. But it is original or basic in character. It provides a systematic and deep insight into a problem and facilitates extraction of scientific and logical explanation and conclusion on it. It helps build new frontiers of knowledge. The outcomes of basic research form the basis for many applied research. 2. Applied research - In an applied research one solves certain problems employing well known and accepted theories and principles. Most of the CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 9  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE experimental research, case studies and inter-disciplinary research are essentially applied research. It was also emphasized by Hechanova and Hechanova (2002) that applied research is practical in nature. It may come from a desire to gain knowledge for useful ends using/applying the theories derived from pure research. Figure 2 briefly describes the difference between basic and applied research Types of Applied Research There are 3 types of applied research. These are evaluation research, research and development, and action research.  Evaluation Research Evaluation research is a type of applied research that analyses existing information about a research subject to arrive at objective research outcomes or reach informed decisions. This type of applied research is mostly applied in business contexts, for example, an organization may adopt evaluation research to determine how to cut down overhead costs.  Research and Development Research and development is a type of applied research that is focused on developing new products and services based on the needs of target markets. It focuses on gathering information about marketing needs and finding ways to improve on an existing product or create new products that satisfy the identified needs.  Action Research Action research is a type of applied research that is set on providing practical solutions to specific problems. It involves the health practitioners, educators or businessmen conducting systematic enquiries in order to help them improve their own practices, which in turn can enhance their working environment and the working environments of those who are part of it – clients, patients, students, users and others. Typically, action research is a CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 10  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE process of reflective inquiry that is limited to specific contexts and situational in nature. Figure 2. Difference between basic and applied research Basic and applied research, further divided into three types of research bearing some characteristics feature as follows: 1. Quantitative research Quantitative research deals with data that are numerical or that can be converted into numbers. The basic methods used to investigate numerical data are called ‘statistics’. Statistical techniques are concerned with the organization, analysis, interpretation and presentation of numerical data (Williamson & Johanson, 2018). In the market research world, numbers give insight into consumer behavior, but quantitative research can and is used to explain other kinds of performance, as well. Scientists and analysts in both the social sciences and CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 11  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE the natural ones use numerical data to apply significance to any number of different kinds of phenomena. Quantitative data includes close-ended information such as that found to measure attitudes (e.g., rating scales), behaviors (e.g., observation checklists), and performance instruments. The analysis of this type of data consists of statistically analyzing scores collected on instruments (e.g., questionnaires) or checklists to answer research questions or to test hypotheses. 2. Qualitative research Qualitative research is a type of social science research that collects and works with non-numerical data. As defined by Denzin and Lincoln (2000), qualitative research involves studying certain phenomenon in a people’s natural setting, attempting to make sense of or interpret the local meanings they attach to it. The data produced in qualitative research provide a narrative description of the way of life of the people (Munhall 2001). Qualitative data consists of open-ended information that the researcher usually gathers through interviews, focus groups and observations. The analysis of the qualitative data (words, text or behaviors) typically follows the path of aggregating it into categories of information and presenting the diversity of ideas gathered during data collection. 3. Mixed research – It is a methodology for conducting research that involves collecting, analyzing and integrating quantitative (e.g., experiments, surveys) and qualitative (e.g., focus groups, interviews) research. This approach to research is used when this integration provides a better understanding of the research problem than either of each alone. One of the most advantageous characteristics of conducting mixed methods research is the possibility of triangulation, i.e., the use of several means (methods, data sources and researchers) to examine the same phenomenon. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 12  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE Summary A good research is clearly defined with clear and detailed methods, limitations and assumptions are highlighted, research design is well planned and sufficient data to investigate, conclusions made are confined to the data gathered by a committed researcher. There are two main classes of research namely fundamental or basic research and applied research. Applied research is categorized as evaluation research, research and development, and action research. Research is also divided into three types namely quantitative, qualitative and mixed research. Assessment 1. Refer to the word collage of the traits of a good researcher as shown below. Choose two words and discuss how these words are related with the characteristics of a good research. 2. Identify the similarities and differences of basic and applied research using the Venn diagram. Write the similarities of the two types of research in the overlapping portion of the circles. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 13  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE 3. If you will be working with a research project, which type of research do you prefer to conduct? Is it qualitative, quantitative or mixed? Justify your answer. 4. Think of concerns that you have in your daily life that would fall under the major groupings of research. Choose only one grouping and discuss briefly. Enrichment 1. Look for a research article related to your field of specialization. Write the APA reference of the article and brief summary. Also discuss how it is useful in your own field of expertise. Lesson 3– The Research Process Pre-discussion You have learned in the previous chapters the importance of research including the characteristics of a good research. This chapter will help you further understand the big picture of a research method by experiencing the whole research process. Can you still recall your past experience in doing research? Can you enumerate the steps of the research process? CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 14  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE What to expect? At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to: 1. Explain research process. 2. Compare research process with scientific method. 3. Differentiate linear from iterative research process. 4. Perform the basic steps of research process. Lesson Outline - The Research Process Understanding the research process is an important step towards executing a thorough research or study. It will help you identify the similar features that occur in the different fields, and the variety in the purpose and approaches to some studies. It also enables you to understand the implication of deviating from a systematic approach to research, as well as the associating consequences of ineffective and ineffectual research. Research is different than other forms of discovering knowledge (like reading a book) because it uses a systematic process called the Scientific Method. The Scientific Method consists of identifying the problem and creating a hypothesis about relationships in the world. A hypothesis is an informed and educated prediction or explanation about something. Part of the research process involves testing the hypothesis, and then examining the results of these tests as they relate to both the hypothesis and the world around you. When a researcher forms a hypothesis, this acts like a map through the research study. It tells the researcher which factors are important to study and how they might be related to each other or caused by a manipulation that the researcher introduces (e.g. a program, treatment or change in the environment). With this map, the researcher can interpret the information he/she collects and can make sound conclusions about the results (Figure 3). CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 15  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE Figure 3. The scientific method Adopting the proposed model by Rummel and Ballaine (1963), there are six steps involved in the research process. These include identifying the area of study, choosing the topic, formulating a research plan, collecting and then analyzing the data and then finally writing up the study. These steps can be represented in three phases, namely the planning phase and the research phase and then finally the presentation phase. This is illustrated in Figure 4. Progression through a project is generally made by stepping through all the highlighted steps where careful compliance with the model improves the prospects of completing the project successfully. Frequent revision of earlier steps can be a sign that these initial steps have been inadequately carried out. Research viewed this way can be seen as a series of linked activities. This process is regarded as a linear process. Research can, however, also be iterative, whereby new activities that arise from the linear process can be incorporated back into previous steps. For example, data collection follows on to analysis steps, which then guides further data collection. Research planned in this way follows a more cyclical process. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 16  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE Figure 4. Linear process of research The iterative technique can be used in analyzing qualitative data. The five major techniques which the researcher applied to analyze the qualitative data is shown in Figure 5. These techniques are the following: data organization (Best & Kahn, 2006), generation of unit of meanings, construction of categories, developing themes and writing the theory (Cohen et al., 2011; Newby, 2010). Figure 5. Iterative process of research Basic steps in research process The following steps outline a simple and effective strategy for writing a research paper. Depending on your familiarity with the topic and the CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 17  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE challenges you encounter along the way, you may need to rearrange these steps. Step 1: Identify and develop your topic Selecting a topic can be the most challenging part of a research assignment. Since this is the very first step in writing a paper, it is vital that it be done correctly. You can select a topic of personal interest to you, where you can find manageable amount of information, an original concept that might stand alone with others, or you can seek advice from your instructor. Step 2: Do a preliminary search for information Before beginning your research in earnest, do a preliminary search to determine whether there is enough information out there for your needs and to set the context of your research. Look up your keywords in the appropriate titles in the library's Reference collection (such as encyclopedias and dictionaries) and in other sources such as our catalog of books, periodical databases, and Internet search engines. Additional background information may be found in your lecture notes, textbooks, and reserve readings. You may find it necessary to adjust the focus of your topic in light of the resources available to you. Step 3: Locate materials With the direction of your research now clear to you, you can begin locating material on your topic. There are a number of places you can look for information. Use the library's electronic periodical databases to find magazine and newspaper articles. Choose the databases and formats best suited to your particular topic or you may ask the librarian in your school. Use search engines (Google, Yahoo, etc.) and subject directories to locate materials on the Internet. Step 4: Evaluate your sources You are expected to provide credible, truthful, and reliable information and you have every right to expect that the sources you use are providing the same. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 18  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE This step is especially important when using Internet resources, many of which are regarded as less than reliable. Step 5: Make notes Consult the resources you have chosen and note the information that will be useful in your paper. Be sure to document all the sources you consult, even if you there is a chance you may not use that particular source. The author, title, publisher, URL, and other information will be needed later when creating a bibliography. Step 6: Write your paper Begin by organizing the information you have collected. The next step is the rough draft, wherein you get your ideas on paper in an unfinished fashion. This step will help you organize your ideas and determine the form your final paper will take. After this, you will revise the draft as many times as you think necessary to create a final product to turn in to your instructor. Step 7: Cite your sources properly Give credit where credit is due; cite your sources. Citing or documenting the sources used in your research serves two purposes: it gives proper credit to the authors of the materials used, and it allows those who are reading your work to duplicate your research and locate the sources that you have listed as references. The MLA and the APA Styles are two popular citation formats. Failure to cite your sources properly is plagiarism. Plagiarism is avoidable! Step 8: Data Gathering and Analysis After writing the three (3) chapters of your paper, namely the Introduction, Review of Related Literature and Methodology, it is time to gather data depending on the type of research you preferred. Once data are available, you have to analyze it using statistical method if you are working with a quantitative research or analyzed it qualitatively. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 19  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE Step 9: Writing results, conclusion and recommendation Once data is analyzed, you have to look for more available sources supporting or providing explanation of the data you have gathered. Make sure to locate credible information and authors are properly cited. Step 10: Writing your references A good research paper has used a lot of available information related with the research of interest, and this is reflected in the last part of your research paper, the references. Go back to the discussions in step 7 for proper referencing, which will be further discuss in the succeeding chapters of this module. Step 11: Proofread The final step in the process is to proofread the paper you have created. Read through the text and check for any errors in spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Make sure the sources you used are cited properly. Make sure the message that you want to get across to the reader has been thoroughly stated. Remember, the guidelines presented are just the process of writing your research. Conducting research does not ends in this process, results of your research should be shared to the experts or to the stakeholders who can use the data you gathered for their benefit. Summary Regardless of types and classes, research follows a systematic process similar with scientific method. Research follows a linear or iterative process. The former includes identifying the area of study, choosing the topic, formulating a research plan, collecting and then analyzing the data and then finally writing up the study. Iterative process wherein new activities that arise from the linear process can be incorporated back into previous steps. Writing research paper is also similar with the linear process and the researcher CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 20  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE should put in mind that reliable information should be obtained in order to come up with a good research paper. Assessment 1. How is research process related with scientific method? 2. Compare and contrast linear and iterative research process. 3. What do you think is the most challenging part in the research process? Justify your answer. Enrichment This sample activity is important for you to be able to see the big picture in doing research. To start, search one (1) research article online of the topic of your interest. Read the article and answer the following questions. If you cannot find answers to the given questions, simply write Not mentioned but you have to made some justifications. 1. What is the research problem? 2. What is the hypothesis? 3. What are the variables? 4. What method was used? 5. What data were collected? 6. How the data were analyzed? 7. What are the results? 8. How did the results of the research were shared? References Accad, A.S., & Accad, M.F. (2016). Qualitative Methods of Research. Kampana Publishing House, Inc. Armstrong, J.S., & Sperry, T. (1994) Business school prestige: Research versus teaching, Interfaces 24: 13–43. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 21  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE Basic Steps in the Research Process. (2019). Retrieved September 16, 2020, from https://www.nhcc.edu/student-resources/library/doinglibrary research/basic-steps-in-the-research-process. Best, J. W., & Kahn, J. V. (2006). Research in education (10th ed.). Boston, USA: Pearson Education Inc. Creswell, J.W. (2008). Educational Research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2011). Research methods in education (7th ed.). Abingdon, Oxon, NY: Routledge. Denzin, N.K., & Lincoln, Y. (2000). Introduction: The discipline and practice of qualitative research. In: Denzin NK, Lincoln Y (eds). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage. Hechanova, R.F., & Hechanova, R.S. (2002). Analysis of Variance with Emphasis on Mean Separation. Blas Edward’s Incorporated. Munhall, P.L. (2001). Nursing Research: A Qualitative Perspective. Jones and Bartlett, Sudbury, MA. Newby, P. (2010). Research methods for education. London, UK: Pearson Education. Patton. OECD. (2002). Frascati Manual: proposed standard practice for surveys on research and experimental development, 6th edition. Retrieved 27 May 2012, from www.oecd.org/sti/frascatimanual. Padua, R. (2000). Elements of Research and Statistical Models. Cagayan de Oro City. MSPC Publishing House. Rummel, J.F., & Ballaine, W.C. (1963). Research methodology in business. Harper & Row. Sevilla, C.G., Ochave, J.A., Punsalan, T.G., Regala, B.P. & Uriarte, G.G. (1992). Research Methods. Revised Edition. Quezon City. Rex Printing Company. Shuttleworth, M. (2008). Descriptive Research Design. Retrieved September 20, 2020, from Explorable.com:https://explorable.com/desc riptive-research-design. What is applied research? + (Types, Examples & Methods). Retrieved: October 05, 2020, from https://www.formpl.us/blog/applied-research Zarah, L. Six Reasons Why Research is Important. Retrieved: July 15, 2020, from https://www.airsassociation.org/airs-articles/six-reasons-why- research-is-important. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 22  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE CHAPTER 2 THE ETHICAL CONTEXT OF RESEARCH Overview It is undeniable that doing research is important especially in finding solutions to the problems. But a researcher should be guided with moral principles in conducting and reporting research. Research ethics have become a central issue in educational research and no research can be conducted without due regard to ethics. Regulatory frameworks and regulatory bodies have been established to manage and approve research ethics protocols. Hence, data gathering for an educational research project can only begin once ethical clearance has been sought, approved and a certificate of ethical clearance has been issued. For most research conducted in higher education, ethical clearance applications are managed and processed through dedicated structures within the institution. This chapter contains the comprehensive description of the following:  Meaning and importance of research ethics  Ethical principles of research  Making ethical decisions  Participants informed consent. Objectives: At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to: 1. Explain the ethics in conducting and writing research. 2. Examine the code of ethics in doing research. 3. Appreciate the importance of ethics in research. Lesson 1 – Meaning, Importance and Ethical Principles of Research Pre-discussion What does ethical consideration in research mean in practice? How can people who participate in research projects be protected? This chapter will CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 23  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE help you understand the meaning and importance of research ethics. You will also be guided with the guidelines of the research ethics. What to expect? At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to: 1. Define the meaning of research ethics 2. Explain the importance of research ethics. 3. Enumerate the guidelines and principles of research ethics. Lesson Outline Research Ethics Ethics is defined by most people as a rule for distinguishing between right and wrong such as the Golden Rule, Do unto others as you would have them do unto you"), a code of professional conduct like the Hippocratic Oath, "First of all, do no harm". One may also define ethics as a method, procedure, or perspective for deciding how to act and for analyzing complex problems and issues. The Oxford Dictionary defines ethics as: ‘moral principles that govern a person’s behavior or the conducting of an activity [… or] the branch of knowledge that deals with moral principles’. This definition focuses on moral principles and guidelines for human behavior. However, such definitions tell us very little about ethics related to the daily activities of researchers. In fact, the work of some researchers proceeds unnoticed, and it is only with hindsight that they become aware of decisions made that could have done harm in some way. Therefore, ethics in research should focus on creating awareness among researchers about how their daily decisions could potentially harm human beings and the environment. Importance of Research Ethics There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in research. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 24  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE 1. Norms promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote the truth and minimize error. 2. Since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination among many different people in different disciplines and institutions, ethical standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. For example, many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship, copyright and patenting policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed to protect intellectual property interests while encouraging collaboration. Most researchers want to receive credit for their contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely. 3. Many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the public. For instance, government policies on research misconduct, conflicts of interest, the human subjects protections, and animal care and use are necessary in order to make sure that researchers who are funded by public money can be held accountable to the public. 4. Ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research. People are more likely to fund a research project if they can trust the quality and integrity of research. 5. Many of the norms of research promote a variety of other important moral and social values, such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and public health and safety. Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal subjects, students, and the public. For example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial may harm or even kill patients, and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and guidelines relating to radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his health and safety or the health and safety of staff and students. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 25  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE Ethical Guidelines of Research Many different disciplines, institutions, and professions have standards for behavior that suit their particular aims and goals. These standards also help members of the discipline to coordinate their actions or activities and to establish the public's trust of the discipline. For instance, ethical standards govern conduct in medicine, law, engineering, and business. Ethical norms also serve the aims or goals of research and apply to people who conduct scientific research or other scholarly or creative activities. There is even a specialized discipline, research ethics, which studies these norms. The Nuremberg Code is one of the most influential documents in the history of clinical research. Created more than 70 years ago following the notorious World War II experiments, this written document established ten (10) ethical principles for protecting human subjects. The Nuremberg Code aimed to protect human subjects from enduring the kind of cruelty and exploitation the prisoners endured at concentration camps. The 10 elements of the code are: 1. Voluntary consent is essential. 2. The results of any experiment must be for the greater good of society. 3. Human experiments should be based on previous animal experimentation. 4. Experiments should be conducted by avoiding physical/mental suffering and injury. 5. No experiments should be conducted if it is believed to cause death/disability. 6. The risks should never exceed the benefits. 7. Adequate facilities should be used to protect subjects. 8. Experiments should be conducted only by qualified scientists. 9. Subjects should be able to end their participation at any time. 10. The scientist in charge must be prepared to terminate the experiment when injury, disability, or death is likely to occur. The Nuremberg Code is one of several foundational documents that influenced the principles of Good Clinical Practice, which is an attitude of excellence in research that provides a standard design, implementation, CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 26  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE conduct and analysis. More than a single document, it is a compilation of many thoughts, ideas and lesson learned throughout the history of clinical research worldwide. Several documents further expanded upon the principles outlined in the Nuremberg Code, including the declaration of Helsinki, the Belmont Report and the Common Rule. Ethical Principles of Research In one of the private Universities in the Philippines, Ateneo de Manila University, Code of Ethics in research was established in 2007. It sets forth general principles of ethical conduct to guide the researchers, which is in consonance with the school’s values and mission. Below is some of the excerpts of the code of ethics. I. The Principle of Integrity and Honesty A. Competence in the conduct of research 1. Conduct all research activities in accordance with the accepted standards of discipline. 2. Refrain from accepting or undertaking research assignments requiring competencies not possessed by the researcher unless collaborating with or being supervised by a more knowledgeable scholar. 3. Avoid claiming or implying a degree of research competency possessed by the researcher in proposals, job applications or resumes. B. Accuracy of research data and reports 1. Ensure the accuracy of all gathered data. 2. Ensure that only the correct data, information, and research results shall be reported in journals, conferences, and reports to clients in case of commissioned research. 3. Take reasonable steps to rectify significant errors found in the published data, via the issuance of erratum, retraction, or correction of the data. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 27  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE 4. Avoid misleading statements or declarations and vague assertions that could be subject to misinterpretation. 5. Avoid making exaggerated claims that are not warranted by the results of the research inquiry. C. Acknowledgment of sources of data/information or other contribution to the research 1. Not to plagiarize; that is, to present portions of another’s report or data as your own, even if the other work or data source is cited occasionally. 2. Cite clearly all sources of information and data that were used which are not the results of our own research. 3. Give proper acknowledgment and credit to resource/funding sources of research. 4. Grant and limit authorship to those who made a significant contribution to the research endeavor. D. Openness and responsibility in the conduct and presentation of research 1. Keep detailed and complete records of research undertaking. 2. Be transparent in the use and disbursement of the research resources. 3. Declare promptly any conflict of interest in the research engagement and presentation of research results. 4. Ensure that research results are accessible to the public once the research is concluded or as soon as is reasonable. 5. Respect the confidentiality of sources by not using or releasing data and information revealed to the researchers as confidence. II. The Principle of Justice and Fairness A. Extension of due regard and collegiality towards fellow researchers 1. Render respect to peers, colleagues, students, and research participants. 2. Provide assistance to other researchers, especially if you are uniquely qualified to do so by your expertise. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 28  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE 3. Respect the confidentiality and proprietary rights of your peers, colleagues, and students whose material is reviewed for publication, presentation, or funding by a grant. 4. Take diligent care of equipment, material resources, and results. B. Credit of others’ contribution, resources, and materials utilized in research 1. Grant authorship in accordance with the significance of collaborators’ contribution in the research. (Any researcher who contributes substantially to a research project or paper needs to get credit. This holds true even if the researcher is a student. This is usually done by naming him/her as an author on the final paper. It is best to have this discussion before writing the research paper. That way, everyone involved can have their say. A person should not be included as an author because of his/her position in the institute. For example, the head of a department should only be included as one of the authors of the paper, if he/she did substantial work for the paper.) 2. Appropriately attribute and credit to others their accomplishments and research results which may have utilized in your own research. 3. Acknowledge the material contribution of others in your research undertaking. 4. Utilize, distribute, or share material resources and equipment in accordance with the conditions set by the source or benefactor. C. Recognition of intellectual property rights (i.e., copyright, patents) 1. Discuss among stakeholders (i.e., the author or inventor, the University, the funding source or benefactor) the fair distribution of legal ownership of the research and/or its products. 2. Distribute fairly the legal ownership of the research and/or its products among the stakeholders. III. The Principle of Safety and Beneficence A. Responsible dissemination of scientific knowledge to the public CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 29  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE 1. Call the attention of the public and the authorities to any hazard you observed that threatens human and environmental safety 2. Inform the community of scientific knowledge pertaining to human practices, attitudes, events, and other phenomena that present unequivocal and significant risk or benefit to human welfare. 3. Avoid making misleading or exaggerated statements, or publicizing equivocal research findings as fact. B. Safe and responsible conduct of research 1. Observe safety practices in all your research activities. 2. Avoid deliberate violation or circumvention of regulations governing research. 3. Refrain from causing harm, stress or pain to any animal in any experiment that does not contribute any substantial benefit to human society that has not been discovered already. For experiments on animals which cannot be avoided, it is our duty to treat them humanely, minimize the pain and to undertake curative measures thereafter. 4. Ensure that laboratory wastes are properly disposed or treated, and your research activities do not result in environmental degradation. 5. Point out to your clients potential dangers or threats to their interest. C. Promotion of the interests of the community 1. To the extent that is applicable or possible, conduct research that serves the needs and promotes the best interests of the community or persons who will be affected by the research. 2. To the extent that is applicable or possible, seek the involvement of the community in the determination of their best interests and how to address them in the research. IV. The Principle of Respect for Human Rights and Dignity A. Extension of equal treatment and respect towards research participants and consumers CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 30  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE 1. Respect cultural, individual, and role differences among research participants and consumers, including those based on age, sex, gender identity, sexual orientation, nationality, ethnicity, disability, language, or socio-economic status. 2. Eliminate from your research practices and reports any biases that are based on the aforementioned factors. B. Humane and respectful treatment of human participants in research* 1. Desist from subjecting persons to any experiment or research procedure that is known beforehand to cause harm, stress, or pain with no overwhelming benefit. 2. Take immediate and appropriate steps to alleviate any physical or psychological harm that may have been inflicted on a participant because of your research procedures. 3. Use deception only when justified by the study’s significant prospective scientific, educational, or applied value and where effective non-deceptive alternative procedures are not feasible. In these cases, the participant should be informed of the true nature of the study as soon as is feasible and is permitted to withdraw his or her data. 4. Provide participants with the opportunity to obtain information about the design, procedures, results and conclusions of the research. C. Guarding participants’ confidentiality and autonomy rights 1. Protect your participants’ right to privacy and confidentiality. 2. Ensure that informed consent is obtained from all human participants of your experiments or studies. That is, participants are free to decide on their involvement only after we have provided them with information that is relevant to that decision. 3. Maintain the autonomy of participants, especially students and subordinates, by refraining from offering inducements that may serve to coerce them into participating. 4. Safeguard the rights and welfare of persons and communities whose status and vulnerabilities may impair autonomous decision-making. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 31  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE Summary Research ethics serves as a guide for the researchers in conducting research that would limit the harm caused to human beings and their environment. Research ethics is important because it promotes authenticity of facts, it promotes collaboration, ensures the researcher’s public accountability, build public support for research, and promotes variety of important moral and social values. Ethical guidelines of research were established especially in the health research, which started with the Nuremberg Code with emphasis on protecting human subjects. It was further expanded by several documents such as the declaration of Helsinki, the Belmont Report and the Common Rule. In the Philippines, various universities and other institutions established Code of Ethics such as Ateneo de Manila University guiding their researchers that includes the Principle of Integrity and Honesty, Principle of Justice and Fairness, Principle of Safety and Beneficence, Principle of Respect for Human Right and Dignity. Assessment A. Picture Analysis: Examine the picture below pertaining to the Code of Ethics. Choose among the words that captures your interest. Write your insights about it in the space below. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 32  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE Figure 6. Research and Publication Ethics Enrichment 1. Case Analysis. Answer the questions after reading the case study. A. Case Study: The Tuskegee Syphilis Study (Formally known as the U.S. Public Health Service Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis) (A true story obtained from nwabr.org) From 1932 to 1972, the U.S. government conducted a study that focused on understanding the long-term effects of untreated syphilis, a sexually transmitted disease caused by bacteria. The original intent of the study was to show that the disease was “potentially…the same in African Americans and Caucasians.” The government claimed it wanted to study the effects of the disease so that it could develop programs to help treat syphilis in the local community. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study, named after a college for black people called the Tuskegee Institute, took place in Macon County, Alabama. The study involved the active recruitment of poor, black, male sharecroppers. The researchers conducting the study told the men that they would be treated for “bad blood,” a term that was used in the local community to describe the symptoms of syphilitic disease—fatigue, fever, sores, and muscle aches. The study, which was supposed to last up to nine months, continued for more than 40 years. Initially the study was approved by the Alabama state government with the expectation that the men would be treated for the disease. Researchers treated the men with the standard use of mercury and bismuth. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 33  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE These highly toxic remedies were sometimes fatal, and were only slightly effective since the cure rate was less than 30 percent and the treatment lasted several months. Of the 600 men who enrolled and who consented, 399 men had syphilis and 201 did not have the disease. Although the men gave their consent, they were never informed about the research itself or that some of them actually had syphilis. In exchange for their cooperation, the men were promised free medical care, free meals, free travel to and from the clinics, and insurance for burials so that their families would not need to worry about the cost of their deaths. In 1947, penicillin became available and was widely distributed as a highly effective treatment for syphilis; it became the standard of medical care for this disease. Although the researchers were aware that penicillin was effective against syphilis, they wanted to observe the consequences of the disease over time. The infected men in the study were never made aware of nor offered penicillin treatment. In 1972, the study ended when a reporter wrote about the research in The New York Times. An advisory committee was formed to look into the study and strongly advised the researchers to stop the study. The men and their families received $10 million in a settlement, and received healthcare for their wives and children. More than 100 men in the study died from syphilis-related complications, and some of the patients’ wives and children also contracted syphilis, which is sexually transmitted and can be passed to the fetus during pregnancy. The patients and their families did not receive a formal public apology from the U.S. government until President Bill Clinton apologized in 1997. 1. What good came out of the research? What was the importance of the study? 2. What things were not fair or are questionable about the research or its process? 3. Was everyone involved fully aware of and did they agree to be part of all aspects of the research? 4. How did social issues (e.g. poverty, education, religion) influence the case? 5. What values were in conflict in this case? CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 34  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE Lesson 2 – Making Ethical Decisions Pre-discussion Deciding if research conforms to the Code of Ethics is a difficult process. It involves feedback from various experts. Interview two (2) persons and let them decide if the sketch below follows the ethical standards. Figure 7. Informed Consent Cartoons What to expect? At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to: 1. Examine how the Ethics Review Committee in the Philippines make ethical decisions in reviewing the research proposal. 2. Review research article if it adheres to the guidelines of Ethics Review Committee such as responsibilities to participants (Informed Consent), stakeholders, community and researchers. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 35  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE Lesson Outline The Ethics Review Committee in the Philippines The National Ethics Committee was created through the DOST Special Order 84-053 series of 1984, an initiative of the then Executive Director, Dr. Alberto G. Romualdez, Jr. to promote ethics review in health research. Tasked to ensure that all biomedical researches involving human participants conform to international ethical principles and standards towards respect for the sanctity of life and dignity of person, NEC put together the first set of national guidelines for the conduct of biomedical research in 1985. In 2010, the NEC was temporarily phased out (DOST Special Order # 383) only to be reactivated on 9 December 2013 because of the pressing need for a national body to review researches which are of national importance. Its functions were clarified as follows: a. Ethics Review of research proposals that:  are referred by other agencies especially government-funded researches that are to be conducted in institutions that do not yet have their own Research Ethics Committees (REC);  directed to NEC by the Philippine Health Research Ethics Portal (PHREP);  the NEC may deem appropriate to review. b. Assist Institutional RECs in the resolution of difficult ethical issues. c. Provide input to the Philippine Council for Health Research and d. Development (PCHRD) and other government agencies including Philippine Food and Drug Administration (FDA), regarding ethical issues in relevant studies. e. Provide applicable information to PHREB in the formulation of policies and guidelines in health research. f. Network with other national ethics bodies (i.e. National Bioethics Advisory Committee (NBAC), National Transplant Ethics Committee (NTEC), Philippine Genomics Center - Ethical Legal Social Issues Program CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 36  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE (PGC-ELSI) in contributing to the development of an ethical research environment. As of September 8, 2020, there are 101 research ethics committee accredited by the Philippine Health Research Ethics Board (PHREB) in the country. In Region XII, there are two (2) institutions with level 1 accreditation namely Cotabato Regional and Medical Center – Research Ethics Committee and Mindanao State University General Santos City Institutional Ethics Review Committee. Making Ethical Decisions The Ethics Review Committee (ERC) or also known as Institutional Review Board (IRB) is a group made up of a diverse group of people (with varying views, backgrounds, and areas of expertise). The purpose is to monitor and review studies involving human participants so that the safety, rights, and welfare of the human participants are protected. An ERC or IRB may approve a study to proceed, stop a study from going ahead, or request changes the board must approve before researchers may move forward. Every institution has laid down their specific guidelines and protocol in reviewing researches. You can check their website on the process and requirements for the researchers to secure the ethics certificate. Some institutions also cater to researchers whose institution has not established their Ethics Review Committee. For example, the University of Mindanao Ethics Review Committee (UMERC) evaluates the faculty and graduate student researchers and grant ethics certification prior to the conduct of their research. Researchers must submit their research proposal and fill up the required forms like Application for Initial Review, Research Summary Sheet, Protocol Submission Form, Letter to Conduct and Informed Consent. They will review the documents and the researches are required to edit their proposal as required by the board. Once all the documents are in order, the researchers can start gathering data and have to submit to UMERC sample of the Informed Consent obtained during the data gathering activity and also report results to the board. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 37  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE In reviewing the ethics application, UMERC assess the research in terms of the voluntary participation, privacy and confidentiality, Informed Consent process, recruitment, risks, benefits, biosafety, plagiarism, fabrication, falsification, Conflict of Interest (COI), Focus Group Participant Identification, deceit, observation, permission from organization or location, technology issues, and authorship. Participant’s Informed Consent Informed consent is a key principle of research ethics. It is important that the person who is invited to be part of the research understands both the benefits and the risks involved. They must have all the information that could affect their decision to participate. Each potential research participant should know the following:  Overview and purpose of the study.  Study procedures.  Potential risks and discomforts.  Potential benefits to participants and/or to society.  Confidentiality.  Participation and withdrawal.  Investigator’s contact information.  Rights of research participant. Make sure that in obtaining the Informed Consent, let the participants read the document and have given a chance to ask questions and they were satisfied with the answers. A signed copy of the Informed Consent is provided to the participants and they were assured that they can withdraw their consent at any time and discontinue their participation without penalty. Summary In doing research, it is a norm to promote the aims of research such as knowledge, truth and avoidance of error. A researcher should promote the CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 38  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE standard values in collaborative work such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. A researcher should also be accountable to the public especially if it is a funded research. Research should also promote important moral and social values. There are also ethical principles in research such as honesty, objectivity, carefulness, openness, intellectual property, confidentiality, responsible publication, responsible mentoring, respect for colleagues, social responsibility, non-discrimination, competence, legality, animal care, and human subject protection. Assessment A. Look for a research article and evaluate the paper based on the assessment points in reviewing a paper in terms of its Ethical considerations. After assessing the article, write your insights. The Assessment Point was adapted from the University of Mindanao Ethics Review Committee (UMERC). Include the title of the article, authors and abstract. Assessment Point YES N/A Discussion in the Article 1. Voluntary Participation. Willingness of human participants to be involved in the investigation after fully knowing the purpose of the study 2. Privacy and Confidentiality. Review of measures or guarantees to protect privacy and confidentiality of participant information 3. Informed Consent Process. Review of application of the principle of respect for persons, who may solicit consent, how and when it will be done 4. Recruitment. Appropriateness of identified recruiting parties 5. Risks. Review of level of risks and measures to mitigate these risks (including physical, psychological, social economic), including plans for adverse event management CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 39  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE 6. Benefits. The potential to yield generalizable knowledge about the participants’ condition/ problem; non-material compensation to participant (education or other creative benefits) 7. Biosafety. Sample collection, processing and proper disposal of infectious and or any biological hazards 8. Plagiarism. No trace/evidence of misrepresentation of someone else’s work as his/her own (the researcher). Use of Grammarly or Turnitin software and/ or Plagiarism Detector is in place. 9. Fabrication. No trace/evidence of intentional misrepresentation of what has been done. No making up of data and/or results, or purposefully putting forward conclusions that are not accurate. No inconsistency with the existing literature among the information included in manuscript. 10. Falsification. No trace of purposefully misrepresenting the work to fit a model or theoretical expectation. No evidence of over claiming or exaggerations. 11. Conflict of Interest (COI). No trace of COI, (i.e. Disclosure of COI) COI is a set of conditions in which a professional judgment concerning primary interest such as the participants’ welfare or the validity of the research tends to be influenced by a secondary interest such as financial or academic gains or recognitions. 12. Focus Group Participant Identification. Addressing the fact that the information discovered within the group becomes common knowledge among those in attendance; thus, there must be a provision in the consent form reminding participants to keep the information discussed confidential. 13. Deceit. Evidence that the benefit of misleading the respondents outweigh any potential harm to them. 14. Observation. Provisions to address an ethical issue when observing people in public or quasi public place, e.g. to have notices placed at the entrance of the store indicating that the researchers will be CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 40  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE operating in this area at specific times. 15. Permission from Organization/ Location. Has expressed getting a written permission from the organization in which the research is being undertaken or the location in which the data are being collected. When getting written permission, the person to talk to must have the authority to give the permission sought and that the activities are organized well in advance. 16. Technology Issues. Provisions as to the use of online panels, collection of data online, and how one views the information being communicated in an online environment, are put in place and are made understandable to the participants. 17. Authorship. Provisions on authorship must be made clear, e.g. authorship qualifications, i.e. authorship credit should be based only on substantial contributions to conception and design, or acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data; drafting the article or revising it critically for important intellectual content; and final approval of the version to be published. References Code of Ethics. Ateneo de Manila University. Retrieved: September 18, 2020, from https://www.ateneo.edu/code-ethics-research. Jarmusik, N. (2019). The Nuremberg Code and Its Impact on Clinical Research. Retrieved: September 18, 2020, from https://www.imarc research.com/ blog/bid /359393/ nuremberg-code-1947. National Ethics Committee. Retrieved: September 19, 2020, from http://nec.pchrd.dost.gov.ph/. Research Ethics and Misconduct: What Researchers Need to Know. (2019). Retrieved: July 17, 2020, from https://www.enago.com/academy/principles -of-ethical-research/. Shamoo, A., & Resnik, D. (2015). Responsible Conduct of Research, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 41  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE Shawa, L.B. (2017). Ethics in Educational Research. Retrieved: September 18, 2020, from https://www.researchgate.net/publi cation/312069857_Ethics_in _educational_research. Shuttleworth, M. (2008). “Definitions of Research”. Retrieved August 14, 2020, from Explorable.Explorable.com. The Science and Ethics of Human in Research. Grades 7-12. Northwest Association for Biomedical Research. Retrieved: September 21, 2020.https://nwabr.org/sites/default/files/NWABR_Humans_in_Research6. 13.pdf. Williamson, K. & Johanson, G. (2018). Research Methods Information, Systems and Contexts. Chandos Publishing. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 42  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH PROBLEM Overview Research writing is a significant part of all academic curriculum and the students must write a research paper during their educational period. Before anyone can write their research paper, the researcher should choose the right topic. You should select a topic which is interesting to you to make the entire research process straightforward. This will help you to save your time from a deep research. It is also important to make use of great books related to the topic, academic publications, magazines and internet resources such as educational websites and blogs of educational institutions and government authorities. This chapter contains the comprehensive description of the following:  Meaning, elements and sources of research problem  Criteria of good research problem  Guidelines in writing statement of the problem and research title Objectives: At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to: 1. Discuss the basic concepts of research problem. 2. Examine the guidelines in writing statement of the problem and research title. Lesson 1 – Research Problem Pre-discussion Examine the figure below and come up with three questions that the picture triggers in your mind. Did you find formulating questions easy or difficult? CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 43  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE Figure 8. Majestic view of Lake Holon, Mt. Parker Range, T’boli, South Cotabato (Photo credits: R. Cudera) What to expect? At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to: 1. Define research problem. 2. Enumerate the elements of research problem. 3. Identify the sources of research problem. 4. Explain the criteria of a good research problem. Lesson Outline Definition and Purpose of a Research Problem A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. In some social science disciplines the research problem is typically posed in the form of a question. A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value question. Selecting the Topic It is a daunting and difficult task to select a certain topic. It is said that the main problem of research paper is to identify the problem. Therefore, it is best CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 44  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE to read extensively on the topic, until the specific problem is discerned and finally chosen. Here are some practical tips in selecting a topic to investigate: a. A thorough analysis of the present situation should be done. The issues, concerns, or even questions at hand can lead to a very feasible topic to investigate. b. It is said that the researcher himself/herself is the first person who benefits from his/her research. Therefore, he/she has to look into himself/herself, his/her own experiences as a student, son, sibling, friend, etc., without losing track of his/her own area of professional interest. c. Reading literature can further confirm a topic or even open up a new one. d. The use of the internet is a powerful tool to look into a topic which is new or rarely explored. e. A habit of visiting a school library can be a beneficial to a researcher. f. A discussion with classmates or even with teachers and other professionals can yield new ideas and insights. Sources of Research Problem Cristobal and Cristobal (2017) mentioned that research problems may exist in various settings such as schools, houses, restaurants, clinics, or any places in the community. They are commonly found in areas where there is/are: 1. A feeling of discomfort like during recitation or in making projects; 2. Perceived difficulties in the management and leadership of the class president or the adviser; 3. A gap between theory and practice; 4. A daily experience of a person that requires further inquiry especially if improvements are desired; 5. A procedure that requires technologically advanced equipment which needs to function properly; 6. A pattern of trend such as classmate’s failing in a lesson, increasing tardiness in English class or misbehavior during PE class; 7. A phenomena experienced by everyone such as the COVID-19 CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 45  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE pandemic; 8. Research agenda of the university or other agencies such as the Department of Science and Technology that is composed of various thematic areas such as Food and Nutrition Security (SAPAT Program-Pagkain para sa lahat), Health (Likas Program – Likas Yamn sa Kalusugan), Sustainable Communities/ Natural Resources Management (SAKLAW Program – Saklolo sa Lawa), Inclusive Nation-building (ATIN Program – Ang Tinig Natin), Climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction (CCA-DRR), Industry, and emerging Technology; 9. A literature review. An article read in the library of from the internet can be a source of an interesting issue, new terminology, or possible conflicts. Even findings in the research can give rise to another problem. Replication study is allowed when parts of a previous study are to be enhanced or elements will be added like other variables, new locale, different study participants, or even recently devised tools. These instances can give students an idea that something is researchable: 1. Solutions are available but not yet tested and not known by the practitioner. 2. No solutions are available to answer the gap or problem assessed. 3. Answers, solutions, or results are seemingly not tested or are factually mandatory. 4. A phenomenon exists which requires explanation. 5. There are several possible and plausible explanations for the existence of an undesirable condition. Criteria in the Selection of Research Problem Like in any undertaking, selecting the best topic among numerous alternatives is problematic. There is a need to define the bases or criteria in formulating a research problem to come up with the ideal one. Barrientos-Tan (1997) identified different criteria for choosing research problem: CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 46  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE A. External Criteria 1. Novelty – the topic must not have been used by many researchers; the newness of a topic and its variables will inspire a researcher or other fellow researchers. 2. Availability of subjects – since this is practical research, it is suggested that you think of study participants who are within your reach (i.e. your classmates, teachers, neighbors). These people could easily be approached and their cooperation could easily be gained. 3. Administrative support – refers to the aid or assistance that can be solicited from the school or extended by the community. 4. Availability and adequacy of facilities and equipment – devices such as computer, telephones, WIFI, etc. used in undertaking the research must be considered. 5. Ethical considerations – ensure that all activities to be undertaken are acceptable and are done in accordance with what is legal and morally right. B. Internal Criteria 1. Experience, training and professional qualifications – constitute the researcher’s knowledge, expertise, and experience in order for him/her to cope with the research demands. 2. Motivation, interest, intellectual curiosity and perceptiveness of the researcher – these are essential attitudes that bring anticipated satisfaction or enjoyment in the completion of research tasks. 3. Time factor – considers the facts that studies must be pursued in a given time frame. 4. Cost and returns – these factors matter in choosing a research problem. Research is an expensive undertaking. The amount of funding necessary, depends on the size of the sample, the place where the research is to conducted, the research design and the treatment of data. 5. Hazards, penalties and handicap – are determined by the researcher’s physical and intellectual capacity and moral judgment. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 47  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE Summary A research problem is the specific issue, contradiction, or gap you will address. It gives your research a clear purpose and justification. Determining the research problem you want to explore is a bit challenging. Some researchers preferred exploring problems based on their interest or expertise. Some preferred to find solutions to current problems they experienced which is guided by the research agenda of some government organizations like DOST, CHED, DepEd and etc. In selecting a research problem, you have to determine the external criteria (novelty, availability of subjects, administrative support, availability of facilities, and ethical considerations) and internal criteria (experience, training and professional qualifications; motivation, interest, intellectual curiosity and perceptiveness; time factor; cost and returns; and hazards, penalties and handicap). Assessment Instructions: Work individually or with your partner in order to identify the topic you will explore for your thesis. 1. Identifying the problem. - Think of a problem in your daily life particularly in the field of your specialization. List down the three (3) topics that you have identified below. Topic 1: _______________________________________________________ Topic 2: _______________________________________________________ Topic 3: _______________________________________________________ 2. Visit online the different government agencies such as DepEd, CHED, DOST, Department of Agriculture, National Commission for Culture and the Arts, Local Government Units and other government and non-government organizations in both local and international levels. Check on their research agenda and identify which of the research agenda your topic belongs. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 48  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE Topic Agency Research Agenda 1 2 3 3. Read research articles, books, theses or dissertations, television, news, magazines or do patent search. After your preliminary research, try to answer the checklist as proposed by Acad and Acad (2016). No. Indicators Topic 1 Topic 2 Topic 3 Yes No Yes No Yes No 1 Are you interested in the problem? 2 Does the question in your mind have no answer yet? 3 Do the articles online do not specify solutions? 4 Are the solutions not yet tested in the local setting? 5 Are solutions or answers to the problem still factually contradictory? 6 Are there occurrence or incidence which require explanation? 7 When the problem is studied, can it benefit a group of people? 8 Is it new and fresh? 9 Can it be completed in a defined period of time? 10 Can you develop guide questions to use in gathering data? 11 Can it help refine or improve existing ideas or facts? 12 Can it help improve the system or program? 13 Can you do it with the help of experts you know? 14 Can you complete the study with the budget that you have? 15 Are you really determined to finish the study CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 49  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE 4. Identify which of the topic has majority of the questions are answered YES. That would be the best topic that you can explore. Enrichment Read five (5) recently published research articles (for the period of 2016-2020) in peer reviewed journals. Write a brief statement about the article particularly the problem being explored or its objectives, significance, brief findings and recommendation. See example below: Example: Article (APA Reference): Cerado E.C., Falsario, M.J.S., Estrellan, J.C. & Paculanan, A.R.M. (2020). Enhancing higher education programs through a graduate survey. International Journal of Current Research, 12, (07), 12680-12692. About the article: A graduate survey is a critical tool to track the employment condition of the alumni in any academic program. Remarkably, the employability of the graduates serves as a significant index of program effectiveness of higher education institutions (HEIs). This study described the demographic and employment characteristics of the graduates of Sultan Kudarat State University in the different baccalaureate programs among nine (9) campuses from 2016 to 2018. A descriptive type of research was employed in the study which involved a sample of 1,115 graduates. Results showed that the graduates are highly employable as evidenced by a 90.67 percent employment rate. The majority of them are on casual or temporary status and now working as professionals within the region that are related to their college degrees. They found their first job in at most two (2) years by responding largely to advertisements. Salary and benefits are the main reasons for accepting, staying on, and even in changing their first jobs. Communication and human relation skills emerged as the top competencies learned in college that are regarded as very useful to their job. Lesson 2 – Statement of the Problem Pre-discussion In color psychology white is the color of new beginnings, of wiping the slate clean, so to speak. It is the blank canvas waiting to be written upon. While white CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 50  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE isn’t stimulating to the senses, it opens the way for the creation of anything the mind can conceive. White can represent a successful beginning and is why it is used to represent the beginning of our process. White contains an equal balance of all the colors of the spectrum, representing both the positive and negative aspects of all colors (in our process). Its basic feature is equality, implying fairness and impartiality, neutrality and independence. Like the Problem Statement, white is totally reflective, awakening openness, growth and creativity. You can’t hide behind it as it amplifies everything in its way. What to expect? At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to: 1. Examine the guidelines in writing statement of the problem. 2. Compare and contrast statement of the problem and objectives. 3. Write research title. Lesson Outline Stating the Research Question The reason for stating the research problem is to advise the reader what to expect after the study is completed. It is the expected outcome because it states the purpose of conducting the investigation. It is the description of the aim or goal of the study and is the guide to determine if the target has been met. It is the statement of which the research should follow to come up with the findings. It should manifest or exhibit an issue or problematic situation which can be better understood through the study. Research questions are categorized into general or specific statements. The general problem is also called main problem, while, the sub-problem is called specific problem. It is similar with the term “general objectives and specific objectives”. The general statement is simply a repetition of the title of the study. While the minor questions or specific objectives are a breakdown of the tasks to be performed. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 51  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE It was reiterated by Cristobal and Cristobal (2017) the important elements in the statement of the general problem that as follows: 1. Main task – they satisfy the question, “what to do” with the major variables such as to associate, to relate, to assess, to measure, to determine, etc. 2. Main or major variables 3. Participants: subjects or respondents 4. The specific setting 5. Coverage date of the conduct of the study 6. For developmental research, the intended outputs such as the intervention program, module, and policies, among others. Guidelines in stating the sub-problems or specific objectives 1. It must be completely researchable. Researchable questions are questions of value, opinions, or policy raised to gather data. The basic form of a research question involves the use of question words such as who, what, where, when, why and how. 2. It is arranged in logical order from factual to analytical order or from simple to complex following the flow in the research paradigm. 3. It should be specifically, correctly, and grammatically worded in the language of research. 4. It should not duplicate or overlap the other sub-problems. 5. It is not answerable by yes or no such as “Will the students from a broken family prove their worth in the community? Example of the Statement of the Problem The following is an example of a statement of the problem based on the unpublished quantitative research study conducted by Cudera (2017) entitled Probabilistic Measure of Microbial Quality of Vending Machine. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 52  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE This study aimed to conduct a probabilistic measure of the vending machine in the University of Mindanao, Matina Campus, Davao City in order to make recommendations for the sanitary maintenance or improvement of the vending machine. Specifically, it sought to answer the following questions: 1. What are the microbes present in the vending machine nozzles in the University of Mindanao, Matina Campus, Davao City. 2. What is the frequency of use of the vending machines in the University of Mindanao? 3. What is the average nozzle temperature in the vending machine? 4. What is the level of microbial growth in the vending machine nozzles in the University of Mindanao, Matina Campus, Davao City when grouped by: 4.1 Location 4.2 Session of the day 5. Is there a significant difference in the level of microbial growth in vending machines when grouped by: 5.1 Location 5.2 Session of the day 6. Do the frequency of use and temperature significantly related to the level of microbial growth in vending machines? Below is an example of the statement of the problem for qualitative research, unpublished research by Lorio and Cudera (2019) entitled Experiences and Coping Mechanisms of Pregnant College Student. This study aims to describe the experiences of college students who are enrolled in various campuses of Sultan Kudarat State University for the school year 2018-2019. Specifically it seeks to answer the following questions: 1. What is the profile of pregnant college students in terms of: a. Age; b. Course; c. Marital Status; d. Family Status; CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 53  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE e. Status of pregnancy; and f. Way of living? 2. What are the experiences of pregnant college students? 3. How do these pregnant college students cope with their situation? 4. What are the insights of the college pregnant students? Difference between the Statement of the Problem and the Objectives In social research, researchers generally use the term statement of the problem while in experimental and developmental researches, they use objectives. Other institutions use both statement of the problem and objectives. Anyway, the difference is usually the kind of sentence. Statement of the problem is in the form of interrogative sentence while the objective is in declarative sentence. Some writers vary in their art of question statements, however; both state them to give an idea that this is the desired or expected outcome to achieve in the study. Example: Statement of the Problem 1. What is the socio-economic characteristics of the participants? Objectives 1. Describe the socio-economic characteristics of the participants. Preparing a Research Title After identifying your research problem and your statement of the problem, it is time to write your research title. Generally, the title should: 1. summarize the main idea of the paper; 2. be a concise statement of the main topic; 3. include the major variable/s; 4. show the relationship of the main variables of the study; 5. include the main task of the researcher about the major variable under study; and; CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 54  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE 6. mention the participants in a general manner and the setting. The researcher must be reminded of the following: 1. In formulating the title, the researcher should avoid using the words that serve no useful purposes and can mislead indexers. The words methods, results, investigations and study appear redundant when used in the thesis title. 2. In many cases, the general problem or even the specific question that the researcher intends to answer, when rewritten in a statement form, can serve as the title. 3. The title must have 10 – 15 words. 4. The title must be catchy and interesting. 5. The title must have international character – this means that the words used are universal or can be understood in other countries. 6. The title must accurately reflect the most important results or objectives. Example In the research conducted by Lorio and Cudera (2019), the title is revised twice as shown below based on the comments of the experts during the SKSU In-house review. First Title: College Students Pregnancy: An Action Research as Basis for Institutional Programs Revised Title: Experiences and Coping Mechanisms of Pregnant College Students Comments: 1. The revised title is shorter than the first title. 2. The revised title indicates the scope of the study as well as the important result or objectives, experiences and coping mechanism of pregnant students CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 55  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE 3. No abbreviation is present in the title. 4. The two titles were written in unique styles. The first title is a double sentence and the revised title is a continuous sentence. Both styles can be used depending on the choice of the researcher. Summary The research problem should be stated in a manner that the reader will easily understand the problem you are investigating. It is categorized into general or specific statements. The general statement is simply a repetition of the title of the study. While the minor questions or specific objectives are a breakdown of the tasks to be performed. Once research problem is identified, you can now formulate your research title that should follow the guidelines such as not using words without meaning, catchy and interesting, with 10-15 words only, with international character and it reflects the important results or objectives. Assessment 1. Compare and contrast statement of the problem and objective. 2. Many researchers find it difficult to make research titles. What can you suggest in drafting the title? Enrichment 1. In the previous lesson, you were able to identify your research topic. After conducting a thorough research of your topic, this time create your own general and specific statement of the problem. 2. This time, you can write your preliminary title (look at the keywords you have used in your statement of the problem and form your title from these. Suggest three (3) titles. CUDERA RB, TABARES MNC, DALAYAP RM, MAYO RE, BANGONON M / COMPILERS 56  RESEARCH MODULE: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE 3. Now that you have identified your research problem, this time you have to seek guidance from the experts. In coordination with your subject teacher, write the name of your research adviser and two (2) panel members who can help and guide you finalize your statement of the problem and title during the title defense. 8. Coordinate with your subject teacher for the scheduled Title Defense once the Title Defense Application Form was approved. Reference Accad, A.S. & Accad, M.F. (2016). Qualitative Methods of Research. Kampana Publishing House, Inc. Cerado, E.C., Falsario, M.J.S., Estrellan, J.C. & Paculanan, A.R.M. (2020). “Enhancing higher education programs through a graduate survey”, International Journal of Current Research, 12, (07), 12680-126