research long.docx

**Purposes of Social Research** Social research serves multiple purposes, broadly aiming to explore, describe, explain, and sometimes predict social phenomena. Here are some of its main purposes: 1. **Exploration**: Social research helps in exploring new areas where little is known. Researche...

**Purposes of Social Research** Social research serves multiple purposes, broadly aiming to explore, describe, explain, and sometimes predict social phenomena. Here are some of its main purposes: 1. **Exploration**: Social research helps in exploring new areas where little is known. Researchers may investigate emerging issues, behaviors, or social phenomena to gain a preliminary understanding. For instance, studying the impact of social media on mental health or understanding new forms of work in the gig economy. 2. **Description**: Descriptive research aims to systematically observe and describe social situations, events, or interactions. This type of research focuses on "what" is happening. For example, a study that measures public opinion on climate change is descriptive, aiming to provide data on existing viewpoints. 3. **Explanation**: Explanatory research seeks to explain why social phenomena occur by identifying relationships, causes, and effects. This type of research focuses on understanding "why" something happens. For instance, a study examining why income inequality impacts educational attainment falls under explanatory research. 4. **Prediction**: Predictive research aims to anticipate future social trends or behaviors based on current data and past patterns. By understanding social factors, researchers might predict outcomes such as voting behaviors, population trends, or crime rates. 5. **Evaluation**: Evaluation research assesses the effectiveness of policies, programs, or interventions. It is often used to determine if a social program achieves its goals and if resources are used effectively. For example, evaluating the success of a community health program to reduce smoking rates. 6. **Empowerment and Advocacy**: Some social research aims to support marginalized or underrepresented groups by providing data that advocates for social change or policy reforms. This is often seen in participatory research where the subjects of the research are involved in the research process to ensure their voices are included. These purposes often overlap, with many studies integrating several objectives. Through these purposes, social research helps expand knowledge, inform policies, and guide social practices. **Philosophical Elements of Research** 1. Ontology: The Nature of Reality Ontology deals with questions about the nature of reality and what exists. In research, ontological assumptions determine whether we view reality as objective and independent of our perceptions (realism) or as socially constructed and dependent on human interpretation (constructivism). For instance: Realism assumes that there is a single, objective reality that can be studied and understood. Relativism or Constructivism believes that reality is subjective and can vary based on individuals\' experiences and social contexts. 2. Epistemology: The Nature of Knowledge Epistemology is the study of knowledge and concerns itself with questions about what we know, how we know it, and what qualifies as valid knowledge. In research, this element addresses the relationship between the researcher and the knowledge they seek. - Positivism is the view that knowledge is only valid if it's based on observable, empirical evidence, often measured quantitatively. - Interpretivism argues that knowledge is co-constructed through human experiences and interactions, and thus requires qualitative, interpretative approaches. A **paradigm** is a comprehensive belief system or framework that guides how we view and conduct research. It encompasses the fundamental assumptions, theories, methodologies, and interpretations researchers use to understand a particular area of knowledge. In a broader sense, a paradigm shapes how researchers approach questions, define problems, and decide what methods are suitable for gathering and interpreting data. In research, paradigms are made up of several components: - **Ontology** (nature of reality): What is considered real? Is reality fixed or subjective? - **Epistemology** (nature of knowledge): How do we know what we know? What counts as valid knowledge? - **Methodology** (approach to inquiry): What methods or strategies should be used to investigate reality and gain knowledge? Some common research paradigms include: - **Positivism**: Assumes an objective reality that can be observed and measured, often through quantitative methods. - **Constructivism**: Views reality as socially constructed, emphasizing qualitative methods and subjective experiences. - **Pragmatism**: Focuses on practical outcomes, combining various methods to address research questions. - **Critical Theory**: Seeks to understand and critique power structures, often aiming for social change. Paradigms are influential because they affect all aspects of the research process, from how we form research questions to how we interpret findings. Postpositivism Ontology + Epistemology = Paradigm Methods + Theory = Methodology **Post-positivism, experiential realism and pragmatism** - *Post-positivists* accept that we cannot observe the world we are part of as totally objective and disinterested outsiders, and accept that the natural sciences do not provide the model for all social research. - While we will never be able to totally uncover that reality through our research, post-positivists believe that we should try to approximate that reality as best we can. - Rather than finding the truth, post-positivists will try to represent reality as best they can. - In contrast to positivists, post-positivists believe that research can never be\ certain. - A second worldview or epistemology that underlies the work of some quantitative researchers is called *experiential realism*. - Experiential realism claims that we cannot observe the world in a purely objective way, as our perception itself influences what we see and measure. - In contrast to subjectivist positions, however, experiential realists believe that there is a limit to subjectivity. - This is because our perception is 'embodied'. We don't observe passively but actively interact with the world through our bodies. - One of the main contentions of pragmatism is that the meaning and the truth of any idea are a function of its practical outcome(s). - Pragmatists strongly oppose the absolutism they see as a key part of most other philosophical beliefs. - They feel that too often a chosen philosophy is put in opposition to other philosophies (think of the positivist/subjectivist debate), which are totally rejected. **What is a hypothesis?** A hypothesis is a tentative explanation that accounts for a set of facts and can be tested by further investigation. - For example, one hypothesis we might want to test is that: «Poverty causes low achievement.» «There is a relationship between pupils' self-esteem and the amount of time they spend watching television. - Quantitative researchers design studies that allow us to test these hypotheses. - We collect the data (for example, parental income and school achievement) and use statistical techniques to decide whether or not to reject or provisionally accept - Accepting a hypothesis is always provisional, as new data may emerge that\ reject it later on Quantitative Research Design\ \ Quantitative research focuses on finding relationships between two or more variables. It relies on numerical data, measurement, and statistical analysis. The variables studied can be categorical, like gender or nationality, or continuous, like test scores or motivation levels. The steps for collecting and analyzing data are usually planned ahead of time. This research approach emphasizes examining relationships between variables to answer questions and test hypotheses, often through surveys and experiments. Quantitative researchers also control certain parts of the study, such as using standardized tools and regulating data collection procedures. Statistical methods are mainly used to analyze the data and answer research questions. Some examples of quantitative research strategies are experimental research, correlational research, and research on individual differences. Quantitative research values broad data, statistical summaries, and findings that can apply to larger groups. These methods focus on objectivity, control, and accurate measurement. Quantitative approaches use deductive designs, which means starting with a theory or hypothesis and testing it. Marianne Fallon describes quantitative research as a \"top-down process\" (2016, p. 3). Quantitative research is often used to explore and explain cause-and-effect relationships, associations, and correlations. Mixed-Methods - Mixed-methods research is flexible, where the research design is determined by what we want to find out rather than by any predetermined epistemological position. - In mixed-methods, research, qualitative or quantitative components can predominate, or both can have equal status - Mixed-methods research is flexible, where the research design is determined by what we want to find out rather than by any predetermined epistemological position. - In mixed-methods, research, qualitative or quantitative components can predominate, or both can have equal status **Experimental Research:** - Experiments are used in explanatory research and are based on causal logic (or cause-and-effect logic). - This logic looks at identifying causal relationships between variables (e.g., A causes B or A causes B under C circumstance). - The cause must precede the effect (temporal order), the cause must be related to the effect, and there must be no alternative explanation for the effect - Explained in terms of variables: The independent variable precedes the dependent variable. The independent variable must be related to the dependent variable. **Surveys:** - Survey research is the most widely used quantitative design in the social sciences. - Common uses of survey research include the census, polling on political issues or public opinions, and market research. - Surveys rely on asking people standardized questions that can be analyzed statistically. - They allow researchers to collect a breadth of data from large samples and generalize to the larger population from which the sample was drawn. - Surveys are typically used for ascertaining individuals' attitudes, beliefs, opinions**,** or their reporting of their experiences and/or behaviors. - There are two primary methodological designs in survey research: cross-sectional and longitudinal (Ruel, Wagner, & Gilllespie, 2016). - Cross-sectional designs seek information from a sample at one point in time. - Longitudinal designs occur at multiple times in order to measure change over time. - Questionnaires are the primary data collection tool in survey research. - There must be clear and justifiable links between your indicators (questions) and the concepts you say you are measuring. - A survey design provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population. - From sample results, the researcher generalizes or makes claims about the population. - **Simple random sampling** (SRS; also called random selection) allows every element in the study population an equal chance of being selected. - **Systematic sampling** is a strategy in which the first element in the study population is selected randomly and then every kth element, after the first element, is selected. - **Cluster sampling** is a multistage strategy. First, preexisting clusters are randomly selected from a population. Next, elements in each cluster are sampled (in some cases, all elements in each cluster are included in the sample - **Convenience sampling** involves identifying research subjects based on their accessibility to the researcher. - Descriptive statistics describe and summarize the data (Babbie, 2013; Fallon, 2016). There are three kinds of descriptive statistics (Fallon, 2016, pp. 16--18): - 1\. **Frequencies**: Count the number of occurrences of a category. Frequencies are generally reported as percentages. For example, in a sample of 100 female respondents, you count the number who reported being on a diet. Sixty-seven out of 100 reported being on a diet. You report this as 67% of female respondents reported being on a diet.