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G1. Statistical Treatment of Data Statistical Tests in Hypothesis Testing Statistical tests are essential in hypothesis testing, used to determine whether a predictor variable has a statistically significant relationship with an outcome variable. There are two main types of tests: Para...

G1. Statistical Treatment of Data Statistical Tests in Hypothesis Testing Statistical tests are essential in hypothesis testing, used to determine whether a predictor variable has a statistically significant relationship with an outcome variable. There are two main types of tests: Parametric Tests: These tests assume certain properties of the data. Common types include: ○ Regression Tests: Analyze cause-and-effect relationships. ○ Comparison Tests: Assess differences among group means. ○ Correlation Tests: Examine relationships without hypothesizing causation. Non-Parametric Tests: These tests do not assume specific characteristics about the data. Common examples include: ○ Kruskal-Wallis Test: Compares three or more groups. ○ Mann-Whitney U Test: Compares two independent groups. ○ Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test: Tests differences between two related groups. ○ Chi-Square Test Compares observed and expected results. Types of Data Categorical Data: Divided into categories or groups (e.g., gender, color). It represents characteristics that are not measured numerically. Numerical Data: Involves counting or measuring and can be further classified into: Discrete Data: Counted values that cannot be divided. Continuous Data: Measured values with an infinite number of possible values. Data Distribution Normal Distribution: Most data points cluster around a central value, forming a bell-shaped curve (e.g., human height). Skewed Distribution: Data is not evenly spread. Positive skew (right-skewed) has low values with a few high values, while negative skew (left-skewed) has high values with a few low values. Nature of Observations Paired Observations: Data points connected from the same source (e.g., pre- and post-treatment measurements). Unpaired Observations: Independent data points from different groups (e.g., test scores from different schools). Statistical Techniques Statistical techniques can be classified into: 1. Descriptive Statistics: Summarizes and characterizes data without generalizing to a population. Key metrics include averages, ranges, and standard deviations, often presented graphically. 2. Inferential Statistics: Extends inferences from sample data to the overall population, allowing researchers to make predictions and generalizations. Fundamental concepts and data Effective data management involves ethical collection procedures, handling missing data, and ensuring data integrity through cleaning and screening. Ethical practices include obtaining informed consent, anonymization, and secure data storage. Data Presentation Data presentation is critical for communicating research findings effectively. Visuals such as tables, graphs, and charts enhance clarity. Best practices include clear labeling, logical organization, and the inclusion of relevant statistical notations. In conclusion, mastering statistical treatment is essential for enhancing research quality and impact. It contributes to the credibility of findings, supports informed decision-making, and enables effective communication of results. As researchers navigate complex data landscapes, proficiency in statistical methods will remain vital. By acknowledging research limitations and potential biases, researchers can ensure more rigorous and transparent studies, ultimately advancing knowledge across various fields. G2. Data Collection Method and Ethical Considerations Data gathering techniques include a wide range of approaches and tools for obtaining both quantitative and qualitative. Importance of Data Collection Methods Effective data collection is integral to the research process, as it directly impacts the accuracy and quality of the collected data. Below are key reasons why data collection are essential: Quality and Accuracy: The method of data collection directly affects the precision and reliability of the results. Well-formulated methods ensure that the data is accurate and relevant for the research. Significance, Credibility and Consistency: Well-designed data collection methods ensure that the information gathered is aligned with research objectives, accurately measures its intended outcomes and consistently reproducible over time. Elimination of bias and Generalizability: Deliberately chosen data collection techniques can help lessen biases that are part of the research process, including sampling or response bias. Additionally, these methods can ensure a representative sample that strengthens the findings’ applicability. Data-driven Decision Making: Consistent and accurate data obtained through effective techniques create a strong basis for making well-informed decisions influenced by research findings.This is important for both scholarly inquiry and practical applications in diverse fields. Success in Achieving Research Outcomes: It is essential for data collection strategies to align with the research objectives to ensure that the collected data appropriately addresses the research questions or hypotheses.Effectively collected data enables the achievement of these objectives. Data collection methods can be classified into two types: primary and secondary methods. 1. Primary Data Collection Methods Primary data is sourced from direct experiences and is unused prior to this collection. Methods for collecting primary data can be organized into two distinct categories: Quantitative & Qualitative Examples of Primary Data Collection Methods: - Surveys and Questionnaires 2. Secondary Data Collection Methods Secondary data encompasses previously collected information that is applied to current research needs. Researchers can obtain this data from various internal and external sources, including reports, journals and organizational databases. Examples of Secondary Data Collection Methods: - Research Papers and Reports Steps in the Data Collection Process Describe the Objectives Recognize Data Sources Select Data Collection Techniques Expand Data Collection Tools Choose a Sample Gather Data Understanding the Ethics in Data Collection In the context of data collection, data ethics means a group of moral standards and principles of how data is gathered, shared and managed. Upholding individuals’ data protection and privacy rights and making sure clarity and integrity in data handling processes are taken into consideration. Ethical considerations present a vital role in data collection for a variety of reasons:  Privacy Protection: Respecting individual privacy is significant in gathering comprehensive detailed information. The purpose of using data in ethical data collection includes securing permission, ensuring confidentiality when required, and providing transparency. Preventing Data Misappropriation: To prevent data from being misused for biased, harmful, or misleading purposes, it is important to approach data collection with strong G6. Objectives of the Study (how to write hypothesis) What is the Research Objective? Research objectives outline the goals our study aims to accomplish and clarify the reasons behind our pursuit. They provide a concise summary of the project's approach and purpose, helping to maintain focus throughout the research process. Furthermore, it outlines the intended outcomes of our research project and is expected to direct each phase of the research process, from data collection to forming our argument and drawing conclusions (Ryan, 2022). According to Chatterjee et. al. (2017), a well-crafted learning objective should encompass the five key elements: who will do it, how much or how well it will be done, what will be accomplished, and by when. Additionally, the SMART acronym—Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound—can be used to outline the key components of an effective learning objective. Example of Research Objectives For example, the aim of research is to evaluate the effectiveness of a new instructional strategy designed to enhance students' reading skills. Here is an example of a research objective for this study: "To assess the impact of the interactive reading program on the reading comprehension scores of third-grade students over a six-month period." Specific: The objective states what will be assessed (the impact of the interactive reading program) and who is their target group (third-grade students). Measurable: The impact will be measured by changes in reading comprehension scores. The objectives need to be measurable since it allows researchers to track their progress and determine whether the objectives have been achieved or can be achieved. Achievable: Objectives need to be realistic and attainable as there are limitations to a research study such as the time, resources, and expertise. The objective is realistic and attainable within a six-month period, assuming the necessary resources and support are available. Relevant: The objective is directly related to the study, which is to improve reading comprehension among elementary school students. Time-bound: The objective clearly states a six-month period for the assessment. What is Hypothesis/Research Hypothesis Hypothesis in its general meaning is “an idea or explanation for something that is based on known facts but has not yet been proved” (Cambridge Dictionary, n.d.). Research Hypothesis “is a prediction or educated guess about the relationship between the variables that you want to investigate” (Singh, 2023). It provides direvtion to the paper and establishes relationships between variables. How to Write a Research Hypothesis Before writing a research hypothesis, one must have an extensive review of literature to distinguish a knowledge gap in the field; after finding a problem or an unanswered question, develop a possible explanation or answer to the problem: the possible explanation or answer that a researcher has created will be their research hypothesis (Elsevier Author Services, 2024). However, according to Grad Coach (2022), a simple statement of a possible explanation or answer will not be an effective research hypothesis. A hypothesis must be clear, specific, and testable. First criteria or requirement is clarity and specificity, What or Who is being assessed, the variables The expected outcome, relationship of variables No uncertainty, not vague Second requirement is testability, Not testable, not a hypothesis Scientifically able to collect observable data to assess whether it supports the hypothesis or not Needs a way to prove or disprove a statement Min. of 2 examples of hypothesis with explanation Hypothesis 1: "The services of a music festival will positively influence attendee satisfaction." Explanation: From this angle, the different services at a music festival determine the whole experience of the people who go: Hypothesis 2: "Satisfaction with the festival experience will positively influence the image of the host destination." Explanation: This idea says that how happy festival goers are at a music festival changes not only how they feel about the festival itself, but also how they feel about the city or area that is planning the event. G7. How to Cite References What is APA citation 7th edition? You can acknowledge the sources you utilize in your writing by using the 7th edition of the APA citation format. It keeps you safe from plagiarism and assists readers in locating the original publications you cite. In APA, you should cite sources briefly (e.g., author's name and year) in the body of the text and completely at the end of your document in a reference list. The social sciences make extensive use of this method to maintain ordered and clear writing. Why is using APA 7th edition citations important in research papers? APA 7th citations give credit to the original authors and writers of an article, which helps students avoid plagiarism and keeps their work honest. Citations can also make the paper arguments stronger. Citing reliable sources shows support in the ideas and content of the paper. Doing APA format keeps our paper looking neat and consistent, which makes it easier for others to read and understand. It also makes the paper look professional and helps others find the sources we used if they want to find deeper in the certain study. Overall, APA citations make our work credible, clear, and easy to follow. What is the purpose of APA 7th edition Citation APA citation is designed to give credit to the original authors of the ideas, data, and research you use. This ensures that their intellectual contributions are properly acknowledged. It helps to avoid plagiarism. By citing your sources, you show which ideas are your own and which are borrowed from others, which is a critical part of academic integrity. APA citation improves clarity and accessibility for your readers. It allows them to locate the original sources easily if they want to explore the ideas further or verify the information. APA provides a standardized format for organizing information. This means that, no matter who reads your work, they’ll find it easy to follow because it’s structured consistently. Lastly, using APA 7th edition reflects professionalism and credibility. It shows that you understand scholarly standards and are capable of engaging in rigorous academic research. When is the time to include or use APA 7th Edition Citations? APA 7th edition citations are essential in academic writing because they serve several important purposes. Anytime you include information from external sources, whether through direct quotes or paraphrasing, you must provide an in-text citation. This includes facts, statistics, and theories that are not your own. When you make claims or arguments in your essay, citing credible sources strengthens your points. It provides evidence that supports your claim, making your argument more persuasive. This practice is vital for maintaining academic integrity, enhancing the credibility of your work, and adhering to established guidelines. How To Cite APA 7th Edition is a popular style for citing sources in academic writing. It uses an author-date system, where the author's last name and year of publication are included in the text, followed by a detailed reference list at the end of your paper. Let me show you the steps on how to manually input an APA 7th Edition Citation. 1. First you need to determine what source type you will use: a web page or journal or etc.  2. Second is the title “what is the title of your source” 3. Third is website name “it focus on what website did you get it” 4. Fourth is Contributors “ who is the contributors of that paper or links” 5. Fifth is the publication date “ what year it get published” 6. Sixth is the URL APA 7th Edition also has two different parts r us called in text citation it uses when stating the facts about what you input on your paper. Direct Ques: Include the author's last name, year, page number, and quotation marks. Example: "This is a direct quote" (Smith, 2023, p. 10). Paraphrases: Include the author's last name and year. Example: Smith (2023) argued that… Conclusion - Knowing how to use APA citation is important as it promotes academic integrity. Giving acknowledgement and credits to the rightful authors avoids plagiarism. Inputting a proper citation also helps other researchers trace the source of information in order for them to explore related topics. Mastering APA 7th edition is relatively important to ensure that an author's work gains respect and credibility within the academic community. It offers trust between the researchers and their readers, as well as people in the field. Learning APA 7th edition is not solely about knowing the proper format to use, but this is a tool we can use to promote writing ethically and encourage scholarly communication. With all these, researchers improve the quality and reliability of their work, making it accessible and trustworthy for all future scholars. G8. How to download and use Mendeley Mendeley reference manager is a free web and desktop reference management application. It is a citation management application that makes it simple for users to add bibliographies and citations to their documents. Key Features of Mendeley Reference Manager The library in Mendeley can be used to store, arrange, and search your references. The availability of a large citation database in Mendeley allows you to search and filter your references and citations. References and bibliographies can be quickly added to MS Word documents for seamless citation using Mendeley Cite. Citations can be automatically formatted in different citation styles such as APA, MLA, Chicago, and many more using mendeley. Creating private groups is one collaborative feature of Mendeley where you can send your references to your colleagues. The collection tab in mendeley may serve as a folder where you can drag or drop your references, keeping your library organised. Adding tags and filters in your references in mendeley is another way of keeping your references organised. The notebook feature in mendeley is useful to take notes and add information needed for your reference material. Downloading Mendeley On the desktop go to the mendeley website ( www.Mendeley.com ) Create an account using your Email and password. After the registration you have to log in with your username and password, it’ll be redirected to the mendeley download website. In the upper right corner you’ll see a drop down menu click the download Mendeley tab. After clicking the download you will be redirected in the mendeley reference manager for desktop, before downloading make sure that it says mendeley desktop for windows then click download. Install using the Mendeley Desktop Installation Wizard. Lastly, it’ll be redirected to the mendeley website login. Enter your Email and Password to sign in. How To Use Mendeley Organizing Your Library You can create folders and subfolders in Mendeley to keep your references organized, you can sort your references by topic and project. Putting tags allows you to label your papers with keywords so you can find them easily. You can also star important references. Reading and Annotating PDFs Double-click a PDF in the library to open it. You can use the highlight tool to mark important sentences. You can add notes in specific parts of the PDF to remember why a sentence is important or to make comments in the content. Using Mendeley for Citation and Bibliography Look for the Mendeley toolbar. Click on “Insert Citation,” search for the research you want to cite, and Mendeley will insert it in the document. You can also choose the citation style you prefer. For bibliography, once you have all your citations you can automatically generate a bibliography by clicking “Insert Bibliography”. Adding references to the Mendeley Reference Manager 1) Add reference manually: Manually add references by selecting “Add New Reference" and fill in the required fields in the mendeley reference manager. 2) Use an identifier: Use the search bar in Mendeley to find references. You can search by author, title, keyword, or DOI 3) Use the Mendeley Web Importer: import references from online databases by using Mendeley. 4) By uploading a pdf document