Religion 12 Midterm Exam Review PDF

Christian Education 12 (OVER) Midterm Exam Review Format Multiple Choice & True and False (scantron)​ ​ ​ 31 marks Terms​ (scantron)​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 10 marks Matching​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​...

Christian Education 12 (OVER) Midterm Exam Review Format Multiple Choice & True and False (scantron)​ ​ ​ 31 marks Terms​ (scantron)​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 10 marks Matching​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 10 marks Short Answer​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 37 marks Reading Comprehension​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 12 marks Total​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 100 marks Unit 1 – Prayer Notes: Prayer – Insights and Misconceptions, Transubstantiation, Freedom PowerPoints: How They Followed Jesus notes Articles: St. Mark Ji Tianxing and St. Mary of Egypt articles, Technology is NOT Neutral by Daniel Lattier Video: The Value of Silence by Fr. Mike Schmitz (Ascension Presents) Handout: Types and Stages of Prayer Unit 2 – Scripture and Christology Notes: Scripture: Reliable History, Scripture: The Word of God, Salvation History (from the PowerPoint), The Divinity of Christ PowerPoints: The Bible: Can an Intelligent Person Believe in the Bible? Worksheets: How to Read the Bible and Deep Misunderstandings About the Bible by Fr. Robert Barron. Accompanying videos can be found on YouTube. YouCat: Handout on Scripture (point 13 and 14) Articles: The Four Fold Sense of Scripture Handout: Difficult Passages in the Old Testament Videos: Videos on 4 Senses of Scripture and Fulfilment of OT in the NT (found on Google Classroom), The Bible Project (YouTube) videos on Leviticus, Joshua, and Judges Unit 3 – Philosophical and Christian Anthropology Notes: Universals and Ideas, Hierarchy of Being, Aristotle’s Four Causes Handouts: An Introduction to Universals, Form and Matter, Potency and Actuality, Substance and Accidents, Primary and Secondary Matter, Substantial and Accidental Change, What does Aristotle mean by Causality?, Aristotle’s Four Causes All questions given for homework could also be repeated on your exam. Review format (to keep uniformity): 1.​ Unit - bold, underline a.​ Page break after each unit 2.​ Topic - underline a.​ 2 empty lines after each topic 3.​ Subsection - bold a.​ Empty line after each subsection 4.​ Line spacing: 1.15 5.​ Times New Roman 11pt 6.​ Use default bulleted list and numbered list formats 7.​ Important points in a section may be bolded or underlined 8.​ If it’s an article or video (not handwritten notes), usually main points are written 9.​ Notes will be mostly/partially copied from previous unit review’s notes Please do not mess up the formatting Unit 1: Prayer and the Philosophy of Prayer Prayer - Insights and misconceptions To start: Who/what is God AND who/what am I? Primary Cause God - Ground of all being, creator (“Borah”, as written in Genesis) ex-nihilo (out of nothing), distinct from creation, and father Eg of secondary cause Us - receive being, created, in created order with a telos (purpose), and sons/daughters Misconceptions “I tried praying, but it didn’t work” “I asked and asked and I didn’t get it” “I prayed and prayed, and nothing happened” Insights Relationship should be the foundation of any view of prayer - relate to spousal relationship Prayer benefits you, not God Video: The Value of Silence (Ascension Presents) ​ So many of our lives have so much noise and so little silence that we’re missing something as a culture ○​ It’s hard for us to enter complete silence. We want to have some sort of noise, whether that be audible noise, something to do, or mental noise ​ “God’s first language was silence” ○​ God speaks in silence ○​ God reveals himself to us in silence ○​ Also reveals us to ourselves in silence ​ Shows us our weaknesses (anxiety/fear, temptation) ​ Silence magnifies (reveals) our inner thoughts ○​ Silence or prayer doesn’t cause bad thoughts to come to us. Silence magnifies these thoughts in our minds. Silence reveals what’s already in our hearts ​ “All of humanity’s problems stem from man’s inability to sit in silence” - Father Mike Schmitz ○​ We avoid those thoughts by introducing distractions ​ We in silence should reveal everything (more than what we think we should show) to God ○​ We tell God what we think He wants ○​ We should expose ourselves ​ Main points: ○​ God reveals Himself to us in silence ○​ We do not like to be in silence, but rather make efforts to distract ourselves, because our anxiety/fear/bad thoughts are magnified in silence. We don’t like to deal with our own thoughts and feelings  ○​ We should voluntarily reveal everything to God, even more than the things we think He wants to hear/know ​ Invite God into the thoughts and feelings Article: Relationship with God ​ Law of Gravity analogy ○​ The law of gravity controls all material things and motion on Earth, representing the carnal (bodily/sexual or sinful) desires that have control over the soul ○​ Solar energy is the only power that can overcome gravity, representing God ​ Comes down to Earth and is received by plants that are then able to grow vertically upwards ​ Plants are eaten by humans and animals, who are able to stand upright and hold things up ​ Mechanical energy from water, coal, petroleum get their energy from the sun in one way or another ​ The sun is responsible for lifting and powering things ​ Solar energy cannot be harvested, but only be ​ received ○​ The seeds of plants are buried underground in darkness ​ Seeds are active, seeking to grow upwards ​ Represents grace which comes into the darkness of our evil souls and uses the only source of energy that can counteract evil (solar energy counteracting gravity) ○​ The farmer doesn’t directly make use of solar energy, but arranges the environment such that plants are able to use it and be used as energy for animals and humans ​ The energy the farmer uses to work comes from the food he eats (plants and animals), which get their energy (directly or indirectly) from the sun. ​ We make efforts towards the good by bringing our souls to a state to receive grace. Grace supplies the energy to do so ○​ The power that transforms solar energy into food represents Jesus ​ Is able to use solar energy to make plants grow in defiance to gravity ​ Offers to be used by animals and humans to keep them alive ​ The farmer’s (human) purpose is to retain this cycle ○​ The farmer’s work is in a cycle ​ Works to exhaustion in order to eat, eats in order to get strength to work. Everything is the same as it was earlier in the cycle, as it never changes ​ Is monotonous, but is lit up by something which keeps the farmer from complete boredom ​ This analogy shows that the monotonous cycle of working for/receiving grace is lit up by the divine (there is something more to it than working in a continuous cycle) Freedom: 3 essential components Two incomplete conceptions of freedom:  1.​ Being able to choose from one things or another 2.​ Having the least restriction as possible In fact - freedom is rooted in 3 essential components Essential components of freedom: 1.​ Truth If there was no truth - could one even do/be good? Could one even be virtuous? No truth means less safety and your “freedom” being a potential threat to someone else’s “freedom” 2.​ Responsibility Why do we study, write exams, pay bills, and obey traffic rules? They make us free (imagine ignoring them?) Our choices have consequences because they are connected to the lives of others 3.​ Desires We all desire same thing - truth, goodness, and beauty The perfection of these three are only seen in one entity - God The more we sin the more enslaved we are. The less we sin the more free we are Jesus and Mary ​ Jesus and Mary were the freest simply because they could not sin. They were incapable of evil. ​ This challenges our usual conceptions of freedom Pope Benedict XVI ​ Quote: “Freedom is the capacity to accept one’s own nature and to become identified with it” How they followed Jesus Where do we see grace working in their lives? St Jerome (347-420) - Priest and Doctor -​ Often depicted with a skull -​ He said “remember your death” often -​ You see more beauty when you know you’re going to die soon -​ Intellectual discovery and knowledge of scripture -​ Translated the bible to numerous ancient languages -​ Taught himself all the languages in the Bible and translated it into latin while keeping the original meaning -​ Memorised all of the Bible -​ Was liberal - believed that women could make intellectual contributions -​ Was not patient or humble St Simeon Stylite (390-459) - Hermit -​ Was ascetic (self-sacrifice)  -​ Asceticism: giving up earthly goods as a sacrifice while affirming their goodness -​ Ex. giving up marriage while acknowledging its beauty -​ Became hermit because he was too ascetic (was kicked out of monastery). Built a pillar for himself and stayed there for 37 years St Thomas More (1478-1535) - Martyr -​ Martyred by King Henry VIII -​ Detachment from earthly blessings and courage -​ Even though he was second highest (below king) -​ Chancellor of Britain to King Henry the 8th -​ Gave to the poor and lived modestly, no lust for power -​ Loved his kids and often spoiled them -​ Didn’t join the Anglican Church, couldn’t put himself before God -​ Got punished (bailed out, put in jail, beheaded) -​ His final words were: “I die a loyal servant to the King and to God.” Martyrs of Gorkum (died in 1572) - Martyrs–i.e. St. Andrews Wouters -​ 17 priests and brothers who were tortured for several days and killed because of their faith (2 of them gave up their faith) -​ Motto - Steadfastness and repentance -​ St. Andrew was a fornicator (although being a priest), martyred. -​ Kept his word for not being a heretic, has a feast day (30th of november) -​ “A fornicator I will always be, a Heretic I will never be” -​ Sinned many, but repented and became a saint -​ We are human, and therefore we are not perfect -​ God’s mercy is bigger than anyone’s sins. We therefore need His mercy St. Therese of Lisieux (1873 - 1897) - Virgin and Doctor -​ Can arguably be one of the 5 most influential people of the Church -​ A consecrated virgin - gave herself to Christ -​ This title can only be given to females -​ A lowly, simple lady -​ A difficult child to manage, but became very religious later on in age -​ Had many sisters who were all consecrated -​ Died by age of 23 -​ Entered convent at age 15. Astounded people by her humility and gentleness -​ Always offered to do the most unpleasant jobs -​ Didn’t write as much as other doctors, but still wrote impactful material -​ Being a saint means how they do things with love -​ Do small things with great love -​ Reminds us that above all, we are children of God. Without God, we can’t do anything -​ Sinning helps us realise that we need God -​ Humility, childlikeness, and service -​ Super humble ​ Venerable Matt Talbot (1856 - 1925) -​ Irish -​ Lived through the poverty era of Ireland (malnutrition, alcoholism) -​ Self-denial and asceticism -​ Had a devout mother -​ Very poor -​ At 11 years old, found his love for alcohol. Was very much a drunkard at age 12 -​ Got smashed everyday until his twenties when he had a revelation about how he was wasting his life -​ Promised to never touch a drink again and never did, devouring himself to asceticism -​ Worked at a sawmill -​ One day, he realised how bad his drinking problem was -​ Swore against drinking for 40 years, went to confession -​ Self denial and asceticism -​ Hardcore ascetic (didn’t have wife/kids) -​ Helped his mother and the poor with the money he earned -​ Put himself in chains Blessed Giuseppe Puglisi (1937-1993) - Italian Priest and Martyr -​ Parish priest in Sicily -​ Was assigned to a run down parish surrounded by the mafia -​ Preached about courage and standing up against corruption, evil -​ His preaching brought more parish visitors -​ The mafia tried to tempt him with money and gifts to stop preaching against the mafia (he rejected all of them) -​ Killed by the mafia right outside his parish -​ Motto - Courage, Integrity, and Hope Blessed Chiara Luce Badano (1971 - 1990) - Virgin -​ A miracle child (parents couldn’t really have a child) to devout parents -​ Popular in a good way -​ Diagnosed with bone cancer -​ Bedridden for the last year of her life -​ Joy, trust, and hope -​ People were amazed about how Chiara stayed positive and joyful even when diseased -​ We honour her because of who she was when she died -​ Chiara died uplifted -​ She can be viewed as the modern response to euthanasia/suffering -​ How you die is a witness to other people -​ Conquered death by grace, did not fear death -​ We need not fear death Servant of God Jacques Fesch (1930 - 1957)  -​ Was a terrible father/husband -​ Robbed a bank, was unsuccessful -​ Ran away to his hotel -​ Shoots a cop who recognised him, cop dies. -​ Not repentant when apprehended -​ Executed 3 years later -​ Converted near his death, reconciled his family and others -​ Prayed and helped others come to faith in Jail -​ Contrition, repentance, and reconciliation Saint Stories St. Mark Ji Tianxiang ​ Was an opium addict, even until the time of his death ​ Was raised in a Christian family in 19th century China ​ Respected, well-off doctor serving the poor in the Christian community for free ​ Got stomach illness, started to get hooked on opium ​ Went to confession frequently, but the priest saw that he made no commitment to amend (priest didn’t see addiction as a disease) ○​ Ji kept going to confession nonetheless ​ Went like this for 30 more years, unable to receive the sacraments ○​ Prayed to die as a martyr ​ In 1900, Ji and his family got captured by the Boxer Rebels ​ Got killed after his family ​ Is a canonised saint St. Mary of Egypt ​ Born Egypt 344 ​ Left home at age 12 to Alexandria for prostitution, but didn’t accept money ○​ Remained in this lifestyle for 17 years ​ Joined a group of pilgrims headed to Jerusalem for the Feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross ​ Couldn’t enter the church with the crowd on the feast day ○​ Began to cry at the side of the church ​ Saw a statue of the Blessed Virgin, and came to realise her sins. Plead for forgiveness ○​ Entered the church without a problem ​ Used three coins given to her by a stranger to buy bread and stopped by the Monastery of St. John the Baptist near the Jordan River. Got baptised, then moved to the desert alone ​ Father Zosimas saw her occasionally. She died alone in 431 Types and Stages of Prayer Prayer is meant to develop (i.e. change) as our relationship with God develops. The following are four classical “stages” of prayer. These types of prayer normally develop in this order, but none is better than any other. All prayer is ultimately being conducted by God’s grace, so whichever type we find ourselves doing is what God wants us to be doing at that time. People typically find that they go back and forth between the various “stages”. I - Vocal Prayer Stage 1 - Vocal (verbal) prayer ​ Usually “formula” prayers, often said out loud, ie. Our Father, Hail Mary ​ These are never outgrown since they are profound spiritual truths ​ They should be prayed with attentiveness of mind and devotion of heart - we should listen to what we are praying ​ Results = the mind is enlightened, the will loves more II - Meditative Prayer ​ Stage 2 - Mental prayer (meditation) ​ We can become bored with vocal prayer and perhaps disillusioned with prayer altogether unless we develop it into mental prayer ​ Meditation is a more mature communication with God taking place silently in our mind ​ Seven types of mental prayer are described in the handout “How To Pray” ​ There are three goals of meditation 1.​ To enlighten the mind with a deeper understanding of spiritual truth 2.​ To arouse the will to respond to God and truth with more love 3.​ To become motivated to live a life more in line with Christ’s charity III - Contemplative Prayer Stages 3 and 4 together are called contemplative prayer. Those who pray regularly should expect this type of prayer to develop. We can tell when we should shift from meditation to contemplation because it gets difficult to be talking to God in our mind. There are also extraordinary mystical experiences (ie. ecstasies, visions, locutions etc.); these are gifts from God and cannot be intentionally achieved by any method of prayer. Stage 3 - Affective (feeling) prayer ​ This is a type of meditation in which we dwell in the love which we feel in mental prayer ​ It enables us to live a life of increasing virtue Stage 4 - The prayer of simplicity (silence) ​ This is a resting before God with an enlightened mind and a quiet heart ​ The fruit of this prayer is inner calmness and personal peace IV - Liturgical Prayer This is the official and public prayer of the Church, such as the Mass or the Divine Office (Liturgy of the Hours). It involves the Church as a whole; all the people baptised into the Body of Christ and it is, so to speak, prayed in a unity (this is why, for example, all the readings for the Masses are the same throughout the whole world on any given day). While the individual participates in a given liturgical prayer, it is prayed in union with others. Article: Technology is NOT ‘Neutral’ ​ “Technology is neutral. It’s just a matter of how you use it” is a widely believed statement, but it is false ○​ Assumes that all technological progress is progress, and it is left up to us to determine how to use it wisely  ○​ Rebuttal: the nuclear bomb is not neutral. It can’t be used wisely in any way ​ However, its development brought us more physics knowledge, which is a form of progress. It depends on how you define progress ​ There is a lack of philosophical reflection on technology in the modern age ○​ People don’t usually talk about technology itself (the medium) but what is on there (the content). For example, people rarely talk about television as a thing itself but what is on television (what is airing, the content) ​ All technology has inherent bias ○​ It’s physical form has a tendency to be used in certain prescribed ways ○​ Example: the bias of the gun is to be used to kill living things ○​ Example: the bias of the screwdriver is to be used to turn screws to tighten/hold things together ​ Some bias may not be obvious at first ○​ Example the purpose/bias of television is not for education, but for entertainment ​ Widely used technologies have dramatically changed the way we live, think, and relate to each other (social aspects) ○​ It is not necessarily a bad thing, as a lot of technologies have brought very good consequences ○​ Overall brought many good and bad effects ○​ Example: transportation has changed the way we think of distance ○​ Example: the Internet has forever changed the way we see/think of information ​ Our task is to use technology wisely ○​ To do this, we also have to philosophically reflect on the technology’s nature and its consequences ○​ You are able to use something wisely when you know more about it ​ The purpose of technology is to make life easier and convenient ○​ Generally a good thing ​ The purpose of prayer is to experience God’s presence ​ Prayer and relationships should not be viewed through the lens of technology ○​ We view technology as something to replace if it goes bad. The same thing cannot be said for relationships ○​ Relationships (and prayer) aren’t created to make your life easier ​ It can have the consequence of making your life easier, but that’s not the point ○​ Woe to the technological approach to everything Transubstantiation Trans - across, beyond, changing thoroughly Substance - substance, essence, content (what it essentially is) At Mass, bread and wine change into real Body, Blood, Soul and Divinity of Jesus - a real (not symbolic) presence. Appearance stays the same. Substance vs accidents OR reality vs appearance Most of the time, reality matches with appearance, but can there be exceptions? ​ Some stars we see don’t actually exist anymore… why? ​ The sun appears to move across the sky… does it? After consecration, the Eucharist appears to be bread and wine when in reality is is Jesus How does the priest’s words actually make this happen? Key word: authority - he has this authority Certain people have authority to change realities… examples? ​ Police can arrest you (whether you broke the law or not) ​ Judges can sentence you even if you’re innocent ​ Umpires can call a player ‘out’ even if he is ‘safe’ At ordination, priests are marked with this authority Important to distinguish authority vs power (power is the ability to do something, authority is the right to exercise the power. Authority comes with responsibility) Unit 2: The Nature of Scripture Scripture: Reliable History Is the bible trustworthy? If not, then who cares about christianity? Motives for disbelief could be A)​ Psychological or B)​ Lack of information Many Christians defend Christian tenets by starting with the authority/infallibility of scripture. Can you see the potential problem with this? Instead: Historically, Scripture is reliable, JC claims divinity in Scripture, so what JC says is true Both modernists and fundamentalists use their own standard (materialism or fideism) when studying scripture. Both use eisegesis (reading into) rather than exegesis (reading out of); whether it be materialism or suspended reason Historical Critical Method - is the tool used to read scripture using the history, the human author’s intent, cultural realities at that time etc. It’s a helpful tool But the HCM alone can be very limiting How to interpret scripture 1.​ Read for author’s intended meaning, when, who, where, etc 2.​ Distinguish interpretation from belief 3.​ Interpret book according to genre 4.​ Know when to take literally vs symbolically 5.​ Scientific/Historical vs religious questions 6.​ Historical proximity The Bible: Can an intelligent person believe in the Bible? Can an intelligent person believe in it? ​ Short answer, yes ​ Multiple categories of evidence support the historical accuracy of the Bible 1.​ Ancient History supports the Bible’s accuracy as a historical record 2.​ The Gospel provides multiple reliable accounts of Jesus life 3.​ Archaeology backs up the Biblical account 4.​ Textual scholarship confirms that the books of the Bible have not changed dramatically since they were first written Historical Record ​ Cornelius Tacitus (A.D. 55-120), an historian of first-century Rome, is considered one of the most accurate historians of the ancient world  ○​ “Christus from whom the name had its origin suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus..” ​ Flavius Josephus, a Jewish historian (A.D. 38-100+), wrote about Jesus in his Jewish Antiquities ○​ “..Jesus was a wise man who did surprising feats, taught many, won over followers from among Jews and Greeks, was believed to be the Messiah, was accused by the Jewish leaders, was condemned to be crucified by Pilate, and was considered to be resurrected” Are the Gospel Accounts of Jesus Reliable? Archaeology ​ The Bible mentions many regions, cities, and structures etc which were uncovered by archaeologists ​ Proves that the things the Bible mentions do/did exist ​ Luke (in Acts) mentions 32 countries, 54 cities, and 9 cities all without error ○​ clear relation between Bible and history Textual Scholarship ​ Many copies of the Bible, copied near their written year Scripture: The word of God Divine Revelation DR makes known what is hidden (veiled) and reveals who God is and His plan to His creation (us) This is done through people (Abraham, Moses, Prophets), the scriptures, and his son Jesus. JC fulfilled and fully revealed all that God has to reveal for us (“It is finished”) This leaves us with Tradition and Scripture: the two things that give us correct interpretation of DR Tradition - truths revealed by God, and passed on to the faithful. This is done through teachings of the Church (Magisterium). See - Matthew 16, Luke 10, and 2 Thessalonians 15. Scripture - collection of 73 books written over thousands of years God is principle author of Scripture and sacred writers are secondary, albeit real and essential, authors of the texts God worked through these authors’ freedom without hindering their reason and will; in fact, their intellects are enlightened, inspired, and guided by HS to write what God wanted recorded Scripture need to be read in i) different senses (see next class) ii) within unity (OT & NT), and iii) within Tradition and Church teaching All scripture should be read Christo-centrically. JC is only person who influenced history before, during, and after his birth JC = lens to read scripture​ lens=hermeneutic As time goes by, we come to understand revealed truths more deeply under guidance of the HS Scripture reveals God’s master plan of saving his people (salvation history) and the way he achieved this YOUCAT faith/scripture ​ The Church as a whole can’t err in faith ○​ The Church has teaching authority (Magisterium) ○​ The Church will make clarifications if something’s not clear or is disputed ​ The scripture is without error in religious and moral truth ○​ The Bible was written by people chosen by God, inspiring them to write things ​ The Bible doesn’t have the most accurate historical/scientific information ○​ the writers were people of the time - limited by the knowledge of their era ○​ they were influenced by their culture, sometimes wrong ○​ everything that man must know about God and the way of his salvation is found with infallible certainty in Sacred Scripture ​ read the Bible like it is a long letter from God to you ○​ read it with reverence ○​ read it as a whole, not just picking parts from it ​ Jesus is the center of the Bible The Four Fold Sense of Scripture Scripture has a two-fold meaning - the literal and spiritual sense. This is reflective of the person of Jesus who is both man and God. Because Jesus is the Logos (the Word/logic of all reality) and Scripture is the Word of God written, there is a correspondence between Who Jesus is and what Scripture is. Jesus Christ has two natures, a fully human nature and the fully divine nature. His human nature is a path to understanding his divine nature - that is, everything he did as a man reflects or portrays some aspect of the invisible God. Scripture works in a similar way. The literal sense is a path to understanding the spiritual sense. The scriptural sense of Scripture, in turn, is made up of three kinds: the allegorical (of “typological” sense), the moral, and the anagogical (or “heavenly”) sense. Thus Scripture, the book that tells us about Jesus, also has two “natures”: a literal meaning and a spiritual meaning. We might summarize things this way: ​ The literal sense of Scripture is the meaning conveyed by the words, discovered through good interpretation. All other senses of Scripture are based on the literal. This literal sense accurately describes what took place. it also points us to deeper spiritual meanings ​ The allegorical sense, especially of the Old Testament, signifies a foreshadowing or typology that will be fulfilled by Christ in the New Testament. That is, the Old Testament event points us to something Jesus did or made clear in the New Testament  ​ The moral sense is Scripture is recorded for our instruction. It moves the Christian to act justly in the life of the Church by indicating to us what ought to be done ​ The anagogical sense of Scripture leads us towards heaven and our fulfilment in heaven in the way that it tells us about the coming of Jesus. (“How does this passage reveal God’s ultimate plan for me?”) Good exegesis (reading out of the Scriptures) uses this method of uncovering the four senses of Scripture and is rooted in Catholic Tradition and has been used by many great saints, doctors, and Fathers of the Church, and even by Jesus and the New Testament writers themselves. The Church Fathers made constant use of the four fold sense of Scripture with the firm belief that since the Bible is God’s Word, everything in it must have some significance for the readers today. In other words, the Bible is still relevant today, and the whole Bible should not just be seen as separate books, but also as a whole unified text as well Jesus gave the apostles the ability to understand what the Old Testament events pointed to. Indeed, Jesus promises exactly that in John 16:25 - there would come a time when he would speak to them plainly and not in any figure. “Then he opened their minds to understand the scriptures” (Luke 24:45). The apostles, through the assistance of the Holy Spirit, were inspired to begin unlocking Scripture; seeing the Old Testament as existing for the New Testament. This is why, even simple references such as Jesus like “Lamb of God,’ “the Good Shepherd,” and “the Paschal Victim” are shallow at best outside of the four-fold sense. Salvation History Salvation history is the progressive unfolding of God’s plan to save the human race from sin and death after the Fall. This is the meaning to the entire world history. After the fall, God re-establishes bond with humanity by a series of covenants. These covenants are in the form of marital unions. Noah’s Ark Literal - the story at that time Allegorical - Noah/Jesus, Ark/Church, waters/baptism Moral - follow God, avoid destruction Anagogical - saved from drowning/hell (what God points us to) Deeper reason for these events and covenants was to prefigure Christ. The Divinity of Christ Jesus’ View on Himself ​ He claimed divinity, sinlessness, being Saviour, spiritual food, and to forgive sins ​ Changed names (eg Saul to Paul)  ​ Said He performed miracles (not evidence, don't use! Saints also have performed miracles) Importance of the Issue ​ Divinity of Christ is most distinct Christian doctrine ​ All our doctrines hinge on this ​ If true, then Incarnation most important event ever Clues to Jesus Christ’s Divinity ​ Similar legends and other myths ​ Author going into own story ​ God is Almighty - he can do this All agree that Jesus Christ was good, wise, and a great teacher. But he has to be trustworthy of Himself to be these things. If not, he is none of these things The Alternatives 1.​ Jesus Said He Was God - Meant is Literally a.​ Lord b.​ Liar c.​ Lunatic 2.​ Jesus Said He Was God - Meant it Symbolically a.​ Pantheistic Guru 3.​ Jesus Never Said He Was God a.​ Myth LIAR Jesus Said He Was God - Knew He Was Not ​ Jesus was unselfish, compassionate, caring, etc ​ Liars/con artists are not like that ​ They lie for their own gain ​ What motivates Jesus Christ’s life? Would He die for it? ​ Did he think it would work? ​ Same argument for the disciples LUNATIC (foolish, not exactly the same as mentally ill) Jesus Thought He Was God = Was Mistaken ​ Lunatics usually strange, uncharismatic, unclear, needy ​ Jesus was opposite of these ​ People felt challenged and inspired by Him ​ Lunatics not hated like Jesus was (people would feel at least some sort of compassion for lunatics) ​ Disciples lunatics? Fantastic coincidence! ​ No historical account of any lunacy in Jesus Christ PANTHEISTIC GURU Jesus Said He Was Symbolically God ​ Jesus was undeniably Jewish ​ Jews and gurus have totally different worldview ​ Judaism - public (things come from outside of the person) religion/law, Gurus - private (things are come within the person) religion ​ Jew believe in God/creation distinction ​ Jewish God a moralist (promotes common morality), not like pantheist ‘God’ Side note: ​ Also, if Jesus was a pantheistic guru, he was pretty incompetent, because all his followers taught a clear monotheism MYTH Jesus Never Said He Was God ​ Scripture extremely critiqued, yet very consistent ​ Many many manuscripts confirming this ​ No eyewitness of Jesus supports this ​ Gospel not written in myth style (they were written literally, i.e. genealogies) ​ Then why was He crucified? ​ If myth, who invented it and why? ​ 1st century Jews didn’t believe in myths Summary There is sufficient evidence to prove Jesus’ divinity in the Bible Jesus’ divinity is the centre of all Catholic teachings and faith The alternatives: 1.​ Liar a.​ What would Jesus gain if he lied? b.​ He was unselfish, compassionate, cared for the poor and disregarded c.​ 2.​ Lunatic (thought he was God) a.​ Lunatics are commonly known for being weird, uncharismatic, opaque in meaning b.​ Jesus was very charismatic and inspired people c.​ People have at least some compassion for lunatics. Jesus was widely hated by the strict Jewish leaders 3.​ Pantheistic guru (symbolically God) a.​ Jesus was Jewish - public religion b.​ Conflict in Jewish and pantheist beliefs c.​ It would be a mass incompetence for Jesus to try to convince monotheistic believers of otherwise 4.​ Myth (didn’t happen) a.​ Many manuscripts, even outside of the Bible, affirming Jesus claimed divinity b.​ Gospel was written in a historical genre c.​ Who would gain from this, if a con? Difficult Passages in the Old Testament ​ Writers were products of their time and came with inadequate knowledge of the world around them ​ Their view of God is constantly growing/evolving and they may even write the truths about God that they don’t fully understand compared to how we understand today Penalties in the Old Testament - Leviticu ​ Consequences of certain sins in the Old Testament is death because separation from God is worse than physical death. In other words, sin kills. ​ The consequences for these sins are the same consequences in NT - the exception is that Jesus takes the penalty for us today. That is why He is the sacrificial lamb since He takes on our penalty ​ It is also possible that the Old Testaments are so over the top since God gave them to Israel knowing full well that He would incarnate and walk the earth. Therefore, it would be so much easy to flee to Jesus since the strictness of the Mosaic Law makes turning to Jesus that much easier. “Come to me, all who labour and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest. Take my yoke upon you, and learn from me; for I am gently and lowly in heart, and you will find rest for your souls. For my yoke is easy, and my burden is light”. (Matthew 11:28-30) ​ The strictness of the Old Testament law is also tied to survival - not just from hell - but from that near impossible physical obstacles that the Israelites endured during the several years of escaping slavery and enemies. Difficult Passages - Joshua, Judges Regarding the Old Testament battles, who’s to say that God never commanded all the atrocities and that they were putting their incorrect discernment of God’s will into thinking that God wanted so many people slaughtered. ​ Perhaps it is remembering Moses, Aaron, and Joshua as heroes and overlooking their wrongdoings such as was done with William Wallace (British. vs. Scottish memories). Also, could there not be exaggeration in Old Testament language just like we use today? (i.e. last year, the Jr. Boys soccer team destroyed every team to win the championship). A key point ​ Jesus and the Four Fold Sense of Scripture is key here. ​ For example, many of the enemies that the army of Israel wipe out serve as a typology to sin and that when we battle sin, we must not leave any slight sin for ourselves, so to speak. We must be relentless and show evil no mercy; that is a key way to connect with God deeper. Leviticus ​ Set after exodus ​ God calls the Israelites to His holy place ​ Structure: ritual, priest, purity ​ Ritual ○​ sacrifices  ​ sacrificing things (lamb, grain, etc) to God ​ burnt offering as atonement for sins ○​ feasts ​ 7 feasts to follow ​ helps Israelites remember who they were and who God was ​ to them ​ Priests ○​ priests ordained into tabernacle ○​ qualifications for priest ​ purity ○​ ritual purity required for all Israelites ○​ you are impure if you touch reproductive fluids, skin disease, mold, or corpses ​ these represent death, so you can’t enter God’s presence with them ○​ moral purity for the people ​ live a life differently from the Canaanites ​ care for the poor ​ sexual integrity ​ social justice Joshua ​ setting is after Moses’ death and when the Israelites are ready to enter the promised land ​ Sections: ○​ Joshua leads Israel into the land ​ Joshua is appointed as new leader after Moses ​ Joshua calls the Israelites to follow God’s commands ​ appoints spies into the promised land ​ Israelites cross the Jordan river (river splits apart) ○​ battles with the Canaanites ​ Battle with Jericho ​ God’s faithfulness ​ Israelites walk around city of Jericho ○​ trumpets sound and city walls fall down ​ Battle at Ai ​ Israel’s failure ​ Achan steals from God’s sacred objects, causes the Israelites to be defeated ​ Only after Achan repented did the Israelites win ​ Canaanites were sexually immoral and sacrificed children ○​ Joshua divides the land into the 12 tribes ​ geographically separates these tribes ​ fulfils God’s promise ○​ Joshua’s final words to the people ​ Joshua said to be faithful to the covenant ​ if not, Israelites will be kicked out of the land Judges ​ Israel’s total failure ​ Israel’s moral corruption ​ Judges are like military leaders ​ Israel fails to drive out the Canaanites ​ Main section that highlights the moral corruption of Israel’s judges over time. Unit 3: Metaphysics and Catholic Anthropology Universals and Ideas Principle of Noncontradiction: Something cannot both be and not be at the same time with the same respect Principle of Identity: Each being is what it is. Ex., a bird is a bird. Answers - “what is it?” ​ Asking what something it, is not the same thing as asking quantity, etc ​ Answering what a thing is searches for its kind or nature ​ Plato stated, all things intelligible have an essential form (or idea) ​ All same things (triangles) have the same essence (essential things that makes them intelligible, what they are) ​ Aspect (size, colour, location) of triangles refer to this or that particular triangle, but not the nature of the triangle ​ There is only one universal of triangle, but many particular triangles ​ We can’t draw or imagine the essence of triangle, we can only know it ​ Essences are universal: only one, unchanging, no quantity, and in no place ​ Form makes something what it is/real ​ Senses only experience particulars and intellect experiences universals ​ Science studies the natures (humans), not particulars (Felipe). Intellect comprehends essences, animals don’t have intellects Doug McManaman: Introduction to Universals ​ Recall the self-evident principle of identity - each being is what it is ​ The “what” in this principle corresponds to the intellect’s first question when confronted with an object - “what is this thing?” ○​ Whatever the answer, it bears upon the “what of a thing” ​ The “what” is not the same thing as its attributes, such as quantity, quality, posture, habit, etc. The intellect desires to know the “what” first Plato’s Metaphysics​ | ​ Plato was occupied with the “what” of things and their relationship to particular things themselves ​ Every intelligible thing has an essential form. ​ “Idea” come from the Greek word eidos, meaning “form” ○​ Eg a group of rectangles have a common idea or form ​ The Greek word physis means nature ○​ The English word “physics” is derived from this ○​ When we inquire about the “what” of a thing, we are inquiring of its nature ○​ Ex Felipe Grossling has a human nature ​ The Green word genos means kind or type ​ Ousia means essence or being  ​ All of these words point to the same thing, that they all refer to the essential quality that renders things intelligible ​ “Each being is what it is” means each being is its nature ○​ e.g. you are human, the deceased person is a corpse ​ An equilateral and isosceles triangle have something in common, that they are triangles (or they both possess the form triangularity) ○​ Their angles, side lengths, and other visual characteristics do not belong to the essence of a triangle, because not all triangles are, for example, acute and blue. ○​ A triangle that we can sense (has side lengths, colour, and type) is a particular of triangle ​ It is impossible to sense universals. If you try to, you are actually imagining a particular of the universal ○​ Universals can only be comprehended by the intellect ​ Essences are universal, unchanging, singular, nowhere (in this physical world) ​ The form of a thing is its very being. What makes a thing real is not its sensible aspects, but its form ○​ What makes a table to be a table? It’s not the material nor the shape, but the form (which is interpreted by the intellect) Intellect vs Sensation ​ There is a distinct difference between intellect and sensation ​ The intellect desires to know “what” the thing is ​ The senses (sight, sound, smell, touch, taste, and imagination) cannot apprehend natures, they only bear upon particulars ​ The intellect apprehends essences (which are universal) ○​ Ex What it means to be ex, a triangle, a rabbit, a teacher Science ​ There is no science of particulars ​ “Science” comes from the Latin word scire, meaning “to know” ​ The object of knowledge is the physis, so science is about coming to know the natures of things ​ Therefore, science is about universals, not particulars ​ No animal except humans can comprehend science because only we can apprehend natures Foundational Philosophical Principles (yellow, blue, pink, green sheets) Form and Matter ​ Aristotle taught (St. Thomas Aquinas agrees) that all physical things are made up of two principles: form and matter ○​ Form and matter are principles of physical things ​ Principle: basic source; that from which a thing comes into being ○​ ex flour and water are the two principles of bread, study is the principle of good grades ​ Form (first principle): the essence of a thing, the determining principle of a physical thing that makes it to be the kind of thing that it is ​ This union is what gives a thing its basic identity  ○​ ex table-ness is the form of the physical table that exists in front of me ​ Form does not exist in reality (the physical realm) by themselves, they can only exist united with matter (particulars) ​ Matter (second principle): the receptive principle of a physical thing; that out of which a physical thing comes to bep ○​ Limits form by making a thing to be individual and have its own accidents ○​ ex, the matter of a human would be the flesh, blood, bone, etc ​ The human intellect allows us to know what a thing is through its form ​ Form and matter are both intrinsic principles of physical things ​ Intrinsic: from within; in and of itself, or essentially ​ Matter is the “stuff” out of which the thing is made, and form is the arrangement of that stuff ​ The external shape of a thing announces its form, but the form is not bound by the shape ○​ ex a lighter in an external shape of a gun does not have the form gun. There is something more to it. We would call it a model/attempt at a gun ​ The form influences every aspect of the thing Potency and Actuality ​ Aristotle and Aquinas agreed that every created thing is a composition of potency and actuality ​ Potency: the capacity or ability of a thing to be actualized. When something is in potency or has potential, it does not exist, but it could ​ Actuality: having real existence. Potentiality made real ​ Potency is telling you about a thing’s possibilities, its capabilities ○​ ex Felipe has the potency to be standing, the car has the potency to have a running engine ○​ ex steel does not have the potency to become sourdough bread ​ Understanding potency and actuality helps us better understand form and matter ○​ Form actualizes the potency in matter ○​ Things change by virtue of their matter, form actualizes the potency in the matter ​ The form of a thing actualises one or more of the potencies of the matter ​ The form of a thing is the thing’s first act ​ Any other activity a thing does once it exists is the second act ○​ ex a human is conceived (first act) and is born (second act) Substance and Accidents ​ There are two kinds of forms; fundamentally different ways a thing can exist ​ Substance: that which is able to exist in and for itself and not in another. Exists independently ​ Substantial form: the form of a substance; that which makes a thing exist on its own, as a substance ○​ Examples of substances: human person, tree, gold, corpse ​ A key trait of substances is its unity. They’re one thing ○​ Machines and products people build (like cars, planes, paintings) are collections of substances (artefacts) ​ Accident: that which is able exist only in another; it requires a substance in which to inhere ​ Accidental form: that which makes a substance exist in a particular manner ○​ Examples of accidents: speed, shape, size, emotion  ○​ All of these can only be present in substances ​ A physical thing can have only one substantial form because the substantial form makes the thing to be the kind of thing that it is ​ Types of accidents: ○​ Quantity ○​ Quality ○​ Action ○​ Passion ○​ Relation ○​ Posture ○​ Time ○​ Place ○​ Habit ​ Substantial and accidental forms are non-material. They are united with matter, but they are not matter itself Primary and Secondary Matter ​ There are two types of matter: primary and secondary ​ Prime (primary) matter: the matter which the substantial form actualizes; pure potentiality; the principle of receptivity in every physical thing ​ Every physical substance is made up of substantial form and prime matter, which is equal to secondary matter ​ Form actualizes the potency in matter, prime matter is pure potentiality and a principle of receptivity ○​ If it is not united with a substantial form, then prime matter does not make up anything ​ The physical substance is made up of the substantial form and prime matter which receives the form and together make a particular ​ Prime matter is constant, even through substantial change. This is how we observe change ​ Everything has prime matter because everything has the potential to be something else ​ We can’t draw a picture of prime matter. If we did, it wouldn’t be prime matter anymore. It would be secondary matter ​ Secondary matter: matter which exists because it has already received a substantial form; like the scientific definition of matter ​ Secondary matter is any physical substance whose prime matter has been actualised by a substantial form ​ Secondary matter can receive and lose substantial form ​ Accidental form makes a substance to be in a particular matter Substantial and Accidental Change ​ Prime matter does not have substantial existence yet (because it needs a substantial form to give it that). Prime matter still is a real principle of being ​ Any change requires something constant that endures throughout the change  ○​ Without a constant, there would be a gap in being and we wouldn’t be able to talk about change at all. We would have to say that one thing stopped existing and another began to exist, and between these two things is a gap ​ An underlying constant which is the same in both things prior and after the change fills in the gap ​ Something is able to change only if it has potency for the change ○​ Change is a movement from potency to act ​ Change can be accidental or substantial ○​ eg (substantial) a person dies, human to corpse ○​ eg (accidental) a person dies from pink to red hair. They’re still essentially the same ​ Accidental change: change in accidental form only; non-essential change because the substance remains the same; change in the manner in which a substance exists ○​ Constant is substance ​ Substantial change: change in substantial form; change in the essence of a thing whereby the substance itself changes ○​ Constant is prime matter ​ A number of accidental changes occur first which prepare the way for the substantial change that happens instantaneously, without our being able to observe it ○​ Exception: sometimes substantial changes don’t need preceding accidental changes. One example is transubstantiation, where the Eucharist is essentially changed to Jesus’ body without accidental (visual) changes Causality ​ Three kinds of substances: perceptible, motionless, and primary mover ​ Perceptible and motionless substances come into being by a change from potency to act ​ Perceptible: refers to things that are sensible, moveable, and perishable ​ Motionless: things that are not subject to change although have had an original coming into being ○​ eg mathematics, ​ Change is the passage from potency to act ​ Since act is more perfect than potency and allows something to come into being, therefore act is higher than potency ​ Four distinctions of change in substance; the Four Causes: ○​ Material ​ The material used for the change/creation ​ eg masonry, stone, concrete, glass, wood, iron ○​ Formal ​ The intended final form ​ The design that the change follows (eg the blueprint for a house ○​ Efficient/agent ​ The process of the change ​ The people/beings which supply the process (eg builders, masons) ○​ Final ​ The purpose or intended end for the process ​ Coincides with the formal cause  ​ End of the generation: the fully formed result (eg house). The changer stops the process of change when they have reached this point ​ End of the generated: the ultimate end or purpose of the process. Why was it created? For what purpose/reason? (eg to provide shelter for a newcomer) ​ The final cause determines the other three causes (has a dominant influence on them) ​ Note: there isn’t a widely accepted final cause for Human (the purpose of humans) ○​ Unity with God? Happiness? To be as virtuous as one can be in this world? ○​ What you accept for your final cause will affect how you think of the other three causes and ultimately yourself ○​ Ideas are not neutral, they have influence and bias (eg the answer of “I don’t have an answer” is an answer in itself, and has an effect) Doug McManaman: Introduction to the Idea of the Soul ​ Plato proved the existence of the soul through reason ​ What it means to be a living thing ○​ Living things → have life ○​ Life has something to do with movement ○​ Living things can move on their own (self-ambulation). Thus, the principle (source) of motion of living things is internal (within itself) ○​ Non-living things can’t move on their own. Thus, the principle of motion of non-living things is external (outside of itself) ​ Living things have an intrinsic principle of motion, but what is this intrinsic principle? ○​ A thing is not alive by virtue of its matter, because matter is inert. For if it is so, then all material things could be living ○​ A thing is thus alive by virtue of a principle that is immaterial, and according to Plato, is the soul ○​ Self-motion is the essence of the soul The mind is immaterial ​ The Greek word for soul is psyche, which is translated as “mind” (soul and mind are used interchangeably) ​ The object of the intellect is the essence of things ​ Concepts as they exist in the mind are universal, thus immaterial ​ A material thing cannot be the receiver of an immaterial form. Material things receive material form ​ The mind receives forms or conceives ideas which are universal ​ Therefore the mind is immaterial ​ The human person can’t have two immaterial principles (intellect and soul), because the human is one thing. Thus, the soul of the human is an intellectual soul, capable of apprehending the natures of things Dualism ​ Plato understood the relationship between soul and body dualistically  ​ Human is of two substances, body and soul ​ The soul is most fundamental, and the body is the prison of the soul ​ Problem: we do not experience ourselves as two substances, but as one ​ How can we talk about body and soul without implying that they are two things? ​ Plato couldn’t answer that question, but Aristotle had more success because he was more interested in the philosophy of human nature and matter than Plato Unit 3 Main Vocabulary 1.​ Principle: the source of a thing 2.​ Form: what makes a thing to be what it is 3.​ Matter: out of which a thing comes to be 4.​ Intrinsic: in and of itself 5.​ Potency: the potential for something to be 6.​ Actuality: having real existence 7.​ Substance: a thing that exists independently 8.​ Accident: a form that exists in a substance 9.​ Substantial form: the form of a substance 10.​ Accidental form: the form of an accident 11.​ Prime matter: pure potency 12.​ Secondary matter: exists because it has received substantial form 13.​ Substantial change: change in substantial form 14.​ Accidental change: change in accidental form