Computer Fundamentals PDF

Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha &...

Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Ref Page Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 1/17  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Learning Objectives In this chapter you will learn about: § Computer § Data processing § Characteristic features of computers § Computers’ evolution to their present form § Computer generations § Characteristic features of each computer generation Ref Page 01 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 2/17  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Computer § The word computer comes from the word “compute”, which means, “to calculate” § Thereby, a computer is an electronic device that can perform arithmetic operations at high speed § A computer is also called a data processor because it can store, process, and retrieve data whenever desired Ref Page 01 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 3/17  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Data Processing The activity of processing data using a computer is called data processing Data Capture Data Manipulate Data Output Results Information Data is raw material used as input and information is processed data obtained as output of data processing Ref Page 01 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 4/17  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Characteristics of Computers 1) Automatic: Given a job, computer can work on it automatically without human interventions 2) Speed: Computer can perform data processing jobs very fast, usually measured in microseconds (10-6), nanoseconds (10-9), and picoseconds (10-12) 3) Accuracy: Accuracy of a computer is consistently high and the degree of its accuracy depends upon its design. Computer errors caused due to incorrect input data or unreliable programs are often referred to as Garbage- In-Garbage-Out (GIGO) (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 02 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 5/17  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Characteristics of Computers (Continued from previous slide..) 4) Diligence: Computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of concentration. It can continuously work for hours without creating any error and without grumbling 5) Versatility: Computer is capable of performing almost any task, if the task can be reduced to a finite series of logical steps 6) Power of Remembering: Computer can store and recall any amount of information because of its secondary storage capability. It forgets or looses certain information only when it is asked to do so (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 02 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 6/17  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Characteristics of Computers (Continued from previous slide..) 7) No I.Q.: A computer does only what it is programmed to do. It cannot take its own decision in this regard 8) No Feelings: Computers are devoid of emotions. Their judgement is based on the instructions given to them in the form of programs that are written by us (human beings) (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 7/17  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Evolution of Computers § Blaise Pascal invented the first mechanical adding machine in 1642 § Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented the first calculator for multiplication in 1671 § Keyboard machines originated in the United States around 1880 § Around 1880, Herman Hollerith came up with the concept of punched cards that were extensively used as input media until late 1970s Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 8/17  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Evolution of Computers (Continued from previous slide..) § Charles Babbage is considered to be the father of modern digital computers § He designed “Difference Engine” in 1822 § He designed a fully automatic analytical engine in 1842 for performing basic arithmetic functions § His efforts established a number of principles that are fundamental to the design of any digital computer (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 9/17  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Some Well Known Early Computers § The Mark I Computer (1937-44) § The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939-42) § The ENIAC (1943-46) § The EDVAC (1946-52) § The EDSAC (1947-49) § Manchester Mark I (1948) § The UNIVAC I (1951) Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 10/17  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Computer Generations § “Generation” in computer talk is a step in technology. It provides a framework for the growth of computer industry § Originally it was used to distinguish between various hardware technologies, but now it has been extended to include both hardware and software § Till today, there are five computer generations (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 05 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 11/17  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Computer Generations (Continued from previous slide..) Key hardware Key software Key Some Generation representative (Period) technologies technologies characteristics systems First § Vacuum tubes § Machine and § Bulky in size § ENIAC (1942-1955) § Electromagnetic assembly § Highly unreliable § EDVAC relay memory languages § Limited commercial § EDSAC § Punched cards § Stored program use and costly § UNIVAC I secondary storage concept § Difficult commercial § IBM 701 § Mostly scientific production applications § Difficult to use Second § Transistors § Batch operating § Faster, smaller, more § Honeywell 400 (1955-1964) § Magnetic cores system reliable and easier to § IBM 7030 memory § High-level program than previous § CDC 1604 § Magnetic tapes programming generation systems § UNIVAC LARC § Disks for secondary languages § Commercial production storage § Scientific and was still difficult and commercial costly applications (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 12/17  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Computer Generations (Continued from previous slide..) Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep. (Period) technologies technologies characteristics systems Third § ICs with SSI and § Timesharing § Faster, smaller, more § IBM 360/370 (1964-1975) MSI technologies operating reliable, easier and § PDP-8 § Larger magnetic system cheaper to produce § PDP-11 cores memory § Standardization § Commercially, easier § CDC 6600 § Larger capacity of high-level to use, and easier to disks and programming upgrade than magnetic tapes languages previous generation secondary § Unbundling of systems storage software from § Scientific, commercial § Minicomputers; hardware and interactive on- upward line applications compatible family of computers (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 13/17  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Computer Generations (Continued from previous slide..) Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep. (Period) Technologies technologies characteristics systems Fourth § ICs with VLSI § Operating systems for § Small, affordable, § IBM PC and (1975-1989) technology PCs with GUI and reliable, and easy its clones § Microprocessors; multiple windows on a to use PCs § Apple II semiconductor memory single terminal screen § More powerful § TRS-80 § Larger capacity hard § Multiprocessing OS and reliable § VAX 9000 disks as in-built with concurrent mainframe programming systems and § CRAY-1 secondary storage languages supercomputers § CRAY-2 § Magnetic tapes and floppy disks as portable § UNIX operating system § Totally general § CRAY-X/MP storage media with C programming purpose machines § Personal computers language § Easier to produce § Supercomputers based § Object-oriented design commercially on parallel vector and programming § Easier to upgrade processing and § PC, Network-based, § Rapid software symmetric and supercomputing development multiprocessing applications possible technologies § Spread of high-speed computer networks (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 14/17  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Computer Generations (Continued from previous slide..) Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep. (Period) technologies technologies characteristics systems Fifth § ICs with ULSI § Micro-kernel based, § Portable computers § IBM notebooks (1989- technology multithreading, § Powerful, cheaper, § Pentium PCs Present) § Larger capacity distributed OS reliable, and easier § SUN main memory, § Parallel to use desktop Workstations hard disks with programming machines § IBM SP/2 RAID support libraries like MPI & § Powerful PVM § SGI Origin 2000 § Optical disks as supercomputers portable read-only § JAVA § PARAM 10000 § High uptime due to storage media § World Wide Web hot-pluggable § Notebooks, § Multimedia, components powerful desktop Internet § Totally general PCs and applications purpose machines workstations § More complex § Easier to produce § Powerful servers, supercomputing commercially, supercomputers applications easier to upgrade § Internet § Rapid software § Cluster computing development possible Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 15/17  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Electronic Electronic Devices Devices Used Used in in Computers Computers of of Different Different Generations Generations (a) A Vacuum Tube (b) A Transistor (c) An IC Chip Ref Page 07 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 16/17  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Key Words/Phrases § Computer § Integrated Circuit (IC) § Computer generations § Large Scale Integration (VLSI) § Computer Supported Cooperative § Medium Scale Integration (MSI) Working (CSCW) § Microprocessor § Data § Personal Computer (PC) § Data processing § Second-generation computers § Data processor § Small Scale Integration (SSI) § First-generation computers § Stored program concept § Fourth-generation computers § Third-generation computers § Garbage-in-garbage-out (GIGO) § Transistor § Graphical User Interface (GUI) § Ultra Large Scale Integration § Groupware (ULSI) § Information § Vacuum tubes Ref Page 12 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 17/17  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Ref Page Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 1/17 Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Learning Objectives In this chapter you will learn about: § Computer § Data processing § Characteristic features of computers § Computers’ evolution to their present form § Computer generations § Characteristic features of each computer generation Ref Page 01 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 2/17 1  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Computer § The word computer comes from the word “compute”, which means, “to calculate” § Thereby, a computer is an electronic device that can perform arithmetic operations at high speed § A computer is also called a data processor because it can store, process, and retrieve data whenever desired Ref Page 01 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 3/17 Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Data Processing The activity of processing data using a computer is called data processing Data Capture Data Manipulate Data Output Results Information Data is raw material used as input and information is processed data obtained as output of data processing Ref Page 01 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 4/17 2  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Characteristics of Computers 1) Automatic: Given a job, computer can work on it automatically without human interventions 2) Speed: Computer can perform data processing jobs very fast, usually measured in microseconds (10-6), nanoseconds (10-9), and picoseconds (10-12) 3) Accuracy: Accuracy of a computer is consistently high and the degree of its accuracy depends upon its design. Computer errors caused due to incorrect input data or unreliable programs are often referred to as Garbage- In-Garbage-Out (GIGO) (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 02 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 5/17 Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Characteristics of Computers (Continued from previous slide..) 4) Diligence: Computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of concentration. It can continuously work for hours without creating any error and without grumbling 5) Versatility: Computer is capable of performing almost any task, if the task can be reduced to a finite series of logical steps 6) Power of Remembering: Computer can store and recall any amount of information because of its secondary storage capability. It forgets or looses certain information only when it is asked to do so (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 02 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 6/17 3  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Characteristics of Computers (Continued from previous slide..) 7) No I.Q.: A computer does only what it is programmed to do. It cannot take its own decision in this regard 8) No Feelings: Computers are devoid of emotions. Their judgement is based on the instructions given to them in the form of programs that are written by us (human beings) (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 7/17 Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Evolution of Computers § Blaise Pascal invented the first mechanical adding machine in 1642 § Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented the first calculator for multiplication in 1671 § Keyboard machines originated in the United States around 1880 § Around 1880, Herman Hollerith came up with the concept of punched cards that were extensively used as input media until late 1970s Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 8/17 4  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Evolution of Computers (Continued from previous slide..) § Charles Babbage is considered to be the father of modern digital computers § He designed “Difference Engine” in 1822 § He designed a fully automatic analytical engine in 1842 for performing basic arithmetic functions § His efforts established a number of principles that are fundamental to the design of any digital computer (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 9/17 Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Some Well Known Early Computers § The Mark I Computer (1937-44) § The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939-42) § The ENIAC (1943-46) § The EDVAC (1946-52) § The EDSAC (1947-49) § Manchester Mark I (1948) § The UNIVAC I (1951) Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 10/17 5  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Computer Generations § “Generation” in computer talk is a step in technology. It provides a framework for the growth of computer industry § Originally it was used to distinguish between various hardware technologies, but now it has been extended to include both hardware and software § Till today, there are five computer generations (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 05 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 11/17 Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Computer Generations (Continued from previous slide..) Key hardware Key software Key Some Generation representative (Period) technologies technologies characteristics systems First § Vacuum tubes § Machine and § Bulky in size § ENIAC (1942-1955) § Electromagnetic assembly § Highly unreliable § EDVAC relay memory languages § Limited commercial § EDSAC § Punched cards § Stored program use and costly § UNIVAC I secondary storage concept § Difficult commercial § IBM 701 § Mostly scientific production applications § Difficult to use Second § Transistors § Batch operating § Faster, smaller, more § Honeywell 400 (1955-1964) § Magnetic cores system reliable and easier to § IBM 7030 memory § High-level program than previous § CDC 1604 § Magnetic tapes programming generation systems § UNIVAC LARC § Disks for secondary languages § Commercial production storage § Scientific and was still difficult and commercial costly applications (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 12/17 6  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Computer Generations (Continued from previous slide..) Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep. (Period) technologies technologies characteristics systems Third § ICs with SSI and § Timesharing § Faster, smaller, more § IBM 360/370 (1964-1975) MSI technologies operating reliable, easier and § PDP-8 § Larger magnetic system cheaper to produce § PDP-11 cores memory § Standardization § Commercially, easier § CDC 6600 § Larger capacity of high-level to use, and easier to disks and programming upgrade than magnetic tapes languages previous generation secondary § Unbundling of systems storage software from § Scientific, commercial § Minicomputers; hardware and interactive on- upward line applications compatible family of computers (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 13/17 Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Computer Generations (Continued from previous slide..) Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep. (Period) Technologies technologies characteristics systems Fourth § ICs with VLSI § Operating systems for § Small, affordable, § IBM PC and (1975-1989) technology PCs with GUI and reliable, and easy its clones § Microprocessors; multiple windows on a to use PCs § Apple II semiconductor memory single terminal screen § More powerful § TRS-80 § Larger capacity hard § Multiprocessing OS and reliable § VAX 9000 disks as in-built with concurrent mainframe programming systems and § CRAY-1 secondary storage languages supercomputers § CRAY-2 § Magnetic tapes and floppy disks as portable § UNIX operating system § Totally general § CRAY-X/MP storage media with C programming purpose machines § Personal computers language § Easier to produce § Supercomputers based § Object-oriented design commercially on parallel vector and programming § Easier to upgrade processing and § PC, Network-based, § Rapid software symmetric and supercomputing development multiprocessing applications possible technologies § Spread of high-speed computer networks (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 14/17 7  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Computer Generations (Continued from previous slide..) Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep. (Period) technologies technologies characteristics systems Fifth § ICs with ULSI § Micro-kernel based, § Portable computers § IBM notebooks (1989- technology multithreading, § Powerful, cheaper, § Pentium PCs Present) § Larger capacity distributed OS reliable, and easier § SUN main memory, § Parallel to use desktop Workstations hard disks with programming machines § IBM SP/2 RAID support libraries like MPI & § Powerful PVM § SGI Origin 2000 § Optical disks as supercomputers portable read-only § JAVA § PARAM 10000 § High uptime due to storage media § World Wide Web hot-pluggable § Notebooks, § Multimedia, components powerful desktop Internet § Totally general PCs and applications purpose machines workstations § More complex § Easier to produce § Powerful servers, supercomputing commercially, supercomputers applications easier to upgrade § Internet § Rapid software § Cluster computing development possible Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 15/17 Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Electronic Electronic Devices Devices Used Used in in Computers Computers of of Different Different Generations Generations (a) A Vacuum Tube (b) A Transistor (c) An IC Chip Ref Page 07 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 16/17 8  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Key Words/Phrases § Computer § Integrated Circuit (IC) § Computer generations § Large Scale Integration (VLSI) § Computer Supported Cooperative § Medium Scale Integration (MSI) Working (CSCW) § Microprocessor § Data § Personal Computer (PC) § Data processing § Second-generation computers § Data processor § Small Scale Integration (SSI) § First-generation computers § Stored program concept § Fourth-generation computers § Third-generation computers § Garbage-in-garbage-out (GIGO) § Transistor § Graphical User Interface (GUI) § Ultra Large Scale Integration § Groupware (ULSI) § Information § Vacuum tubes Ref Page 12 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 17/17 9  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Ref Page Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 1/17 Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Learning Objectives In this chapter you will learn about: § Computer § Data processing § Characteristic features of computers § Computers’ evolution to their present form § Computer generations § Characteristic features of each computer generation Ref Page 01 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 2/17 Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Computer § The word computer comes from the word “compute”, which means, “to calculate” § Thereby, a computer is an electronic device that can perform arithmetic operations at high speed § A computer is also called a data processor because it can store, process, and retrieve data whenever desired Ref Page 01 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 3/17 1  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Data Processing The activity of processing data using a computer is called data processing Data Capture Data Manipulate Data Output Results Information Data is raw material used as input and information is processed data obtained as output of data processing Ref Page 01 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 4/17 Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Characteristics of Computers 1) Automatic: Given a job, computer can work on it automatically without human interventions 2) Speed: Computer can perform data processing jobs very fast, usually measured in microseconds (10-6), nanoseconds (10-9), and picoseconds (10-12) 3) Accuracy: Accuracy of a computer is consistently high and the degree of its accuracy depends upon its design. Computer errors caused due to incorrect input data or unreliable programs are often referred to as Garbage- In-Garbage-Out (GIGO) (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 02 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 5/17 Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Characteristics of Computers (Continued from previous slide..) 4) Diligence: Computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of concentration. It can continuously work for hours without creating any error and without grumbling 5) Versatility: Computer is capable of performing almost any task, if the task can be reduced to a finite series of logical steps 6) Power of Remembering: Computer can store and recall any amount of information because of its secondary storage capability. It forgets or looses certain information only when it is asked to do so (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 02 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 6/17 2  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Characteristics of Computers (Continued from previous slide..) 7) No I.Q.: A computer does only what it is programmed to do. It cannot take its own decision in this regard 8) No Feelings: Computers are devoid of emotions. Their judgement is based on the instructions given to them in the form of programs that are written by us (human beings) (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 7/17 Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Evolution of Computers § Blaise Pascal invented the first mechanical adding machine in 1642 § Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented the first calculator for multiplication in 1671 § Keyboard machines originated in the United States around 1880 § Around 1880, Herman Hollerith came up with the concept of punched cards that were extensively used as input media until late 1970s Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 8/17 Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Evolution of Computers (Continued from previous slide..) § Charles Babbage is considered to be the father of modern digital computers § He designed “Difference Engine” in 1822 § He designed a fully automatic analytical engine in 1842 for performing basic arithmetic functions § His efforts established a number of principles that are fundamental to the design of any digital computer (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 9/17 3  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Some Well Known Early Computers § The Mark I Computer (1937-44) § The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939-42) § The ENIAC (1943-46) § The EDVAC (1946-52) § The EDSAC (1947-49) § Manchester Mark I (1948) § The UNIVAC I (1951) Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 10/17 Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Computer Generations § “Generation” in computer talk is a step in technology. It provides a framework for the growth of computer industry § Originally it was used to distinguish between various hardware technologies, but now it has been extended to include both hardware and software § Till today, there are five computer generations (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 05 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 11/17 Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Computer Generations (Continued from previous slide..) Key hardware Key software Key Some Generation representative (Period) technologies technologies characteristics systems First § Vacuum tubes § Machine and § Bulky in size § ENIAC (1942-1955) § Electromagnetic assembly § Highly unreliable § EDVAC relay memory languages § Limited commercial § EDSAC § Punched cards § Stored program use and costly § UNIVAC I secondary storage concept § Difficult commercial § IBM 701 § Mostly scientific production applications § Difficult to use Second § Transistors § Batch operating § Faster, smaller, more § Honeywell 400 (1955-1964) § Magnetic cores system reliable and easier to § IBM 7030 memory § High-level program than previous § CDC 1604 § Magnetic tapes programming generation systems § UNIVAC LARC § Disks for secondary languages § Commercial production storage § Scientific and was still difficult and commercial costly applications (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 12/17 4  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Computer Generations (Continued from previous slide..) Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep. (Period) technologies technologies characteristics systems Third § ICs with SSI and § Timesharing § Faster, smaller, more § IBM 360/370 (1964-1975) MSI technologies operating reliable, easier and § PDP-8 § Larger magnetic system cheaper to produce § PDP-11 cores memory § Standardization § Commercially, easier § CDC 6600 § Larger capacity of high-level to use, and easier to disks and programming upgrade than magnetic tapes languages previous generation secondary § Unbundling of systems storage software from § Scientific, commercial § Minicomputers; hardware and interactive on- upward line applications compatible family of computers (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 13/17 Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Computer Generations (Continued from previous slide..) Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep. (Period) Technologies technologies characteristics systems Fourth § ICs with VLSI § Operating systems for § Small, affordable, § IBM PC and (1975-1989) technology PCs with GUI and reliable, and easy its clones § Microprocessors; multiple windows on a to use PCs § Apple II semiconductor memory single terminal screen § More powerful § TRS-80 § Larger capacity hard § Multiprocessing OS and reliable § VAX 9000 disks as in-built with concurrent mainframe programming systems and § CRAY-1 secondary storage languages supercomputers § CRAY-2 § Magnetic tapes and floppy disks as portable § UNIX operating system § Totally general § CRAY-X/MP storage media with C programming purpose machines § Personal computers language § Easier to produce § Supercomputers based § Object-oriented design commercially on parallel vector and programming § Easier to upgrade processing and § PC, Network-based, § Rapid software symmetric and supercomputing development multiprocessing applications possible technologies § Spread of high-speed computer networks (Continued on next slide) Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 14/17 Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Computer Generations (Continued from previous slide..) Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep. (Period) technologies technologies characteristics systems Fifth § ICs with ULSI § Micro-kernel based, § Portable computers § IBM notebooks (1989- technology multithreading, § Powerful, cheaper, § Pentium PCs Present) § Larger capacity distributed OS reliable, and easier § SUN main memory, § Parallel to use desktop Workstations hard disks with programming machines § IBM SP/2 RAID support libraries like MPI & § Powerful PVM § SGI Origin 2000 § Optical disks as supercomputers portable read-only § JAVA § PARAM 10000 § High uptime due to storage media § World Wide Web hot-pluggable § Notebooks, § Multimedia, components powerful desktop Internet § Totally general PCs and applications purpose machines workstations § More complex § Easier to produce § Powerful servers, supercomputing commercially, supercomputers applications easier to upgrade § Internet § Rapid software § Cluster computing development possible Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 15/17 5  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Electronic Devices Used in Computers of Different Generations (a) A Vacuum Tube (b) A Transistor (c) An IC Chip Ref Page 07 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 16/17 Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Key Words/Phrases § Computer § Integrated Circuit (IC) § Computer generations § Large Scale Integration (VLSI) § Computer Supported Cooperative § Medium Scale Integration (MSI) Working (CSCW) § Microprocessor § Data § Personal Computer (PC) § Data processing § Second-generation computers § Data processor § Small Scale Integration (SSI) § First-generation computers § Stored program concept § Fourth-generation computers § Third-generation computers § Garbage-in-garbage-out (GIGO) § Transistor § Graphical User Interface (GUI) § Ultra Large Scale Integration § Groupware (ULSI) § Information § Vacuum tubes Ref Page 12 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 17/17 6  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Ref. Page Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 1/16  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Learning Objectives In this chapter you will learn about: § Basic operations performed by all types of computer systems § Basic organization of a computer system § Input unit and its functions § Output unit and its functions § Storage unit and its functions § Types of storage used in a computer system (Continued on next slide) Ref. Page 15 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 2/16  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Learning Objectives (Continued from previous slide..) § Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) § Control Unit (CU) § Central Processing Unit (CPU) § Computer as a system Ref. Page 15 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 3/16  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha The Five Basic Operations of a Computer System § Inputting. The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system § Storing. Saving data and instructions to make them readily available for initial or additional processing whenever required § Processing. Performing arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply, divide, etc.) or logical operations (comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than, etc.) on data to convert them into useful information (Continued on next slide) Ref. Page 15 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 4/16  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha The Five Basic Operations of a Computer System § Outputting. The process of producing useful information or results for the user such as a printed report or visual display § Controlling. Directing the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are performed Ref. Page 15 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 5/16  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Basic Organization of a Computer System Storage Unit Secondary Storage Program Input Output Information and Unit Unit (Results) Data Primary Storage Control Unit Indicates flow of instructions and data Arithmetic Indicates the control Logic Unit exercised by the control unit Central Processing Unit (CPU) Ref. Page 16 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 6/16  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Input Unit An input unit of a computer system performs the following functions: 1. It accepts (or reads) instructions and data from outside world 2. It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form 3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further processing Ref. Page 16 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 7/16  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Output Unit An output unit of a computer system performs the following functions: 1. It accepts the results produced by the computer, which are in coded form and hence, cannot be easily understood by us 2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form 3. It supplies the converted results to outside world Ref. Page 16 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 8/16  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Storage Unit The storage unit of a computer system holds (or stores) the following : 1. Data and instructions required for processing (received from input devices) 2. Intermediate results of processing 3. Final results of processing, before they are released to an output device Ref. Page 17 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 9/16  Computer Computer Fundamentals: Fundamentals: Pradeep Pradeep K. K. Sinha Sinha & & Priti Priti Sinha Sinha Two Types of Storage § Primary storage § Used to hold running program instructions § Used to hold data, intermediate results, and results of ongoing processing of job(s) § Fast in operation § Small Capacity § Expensive § Volatile (looses data on power dissipation) (Continued on next slide) Ref. Page 17 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 10/16  Computer