Philippine History - Chapter 1 PDF

**PHILIPPINE HISTORY** **CHAPTER 1** THE PHILIPPINES AND ITS PEOPLE ============================== How come Filipinos have such varied physical features? Such diversed economic activities? Observers say, one's geography (e.g., archipelagic and tropical) can help shape not only a people's physical...

**PHILIPPINE HISTORY** **CHAPTER 1** THE PHILIPPINES AND ITS PEOPLE ============================== How come Filipinos have such varied physical features? Such diversed economic activities? Observers say, one's geography (e.g., archipelagic and tropical) can help shape not only a people's physical appearance but also their economy, character traits, history and development. The Philippines is a tropical and archipelagic country found in Southeast Asia. Endowed with rich natural resources and a warm, hospitable people, it has its own share of political and economic challenges to meet. GEOGRAPHY ========= The Philippines is an **archipelago** lying southeast of the coast of the mainland of Asia. It is located a little above the equator and thus, belongs to the northern hemisphere. Of approximately 7,107 islands and islets that compose the Archipelago, some 4,000 have no names. Luzon, Mindanao, Negros, Samar, Palawan, Panay, Mindoro, Leyte, Cebu and Bohol are the ten biggest islands. The total land area, excluding the bodies of water surrounded by land, such as Laguna de Bay, Taal Lake, Lake Lanao, and many more like these, is 300,000 square kilometers. The northernmost island of Luzon is just 100 kilometers away from the island of Taiwan, formerly called Formosa. North and west of the archipelago lies the South China Sea; to the east is the Pacific Ocean; and to the south are the Celebes Sea and the waters of Borneo. The **coastline** of the Philippines is irregular and stretches for about 36,289 kilometers, about twice as long as the coastline of the United States, excluding that of Alaska and Hawaii. In a note verbale submitted by the Philippine government to the United Nations on March 7, 1955, the Philippines is defined as "a mid-ocean archipelagic state." Thus, "All waters around, between and connecting different islands belonging to the Philippine Archipelago, irrespective of their width or dimensions, are necessary appurtenances of its land territory, forming an integral part of the national or inland waters, subject to the exclusive sovereignty of the Philippines." Because of the irregular coastline, the country abounds in good harbors, landlocked straits, and hundreds of rivers, bays and lakes. Manila Bay, which has an area of a little less than 2,000 square kilometers and a circumference of about 190 kilometers, is considered one of the finest natural harbors in the world. The **Philippine Deep**, which is found east of the Philippines near Samar and Leyte, is considered as one of the deepest sea trenches in the world. A look at the physical map of the Philippines shows that it is **mountainous.** There are numerous peaks from north to south, of which **Mount Apo** in Mindanao is the **highest**, standing at approximately 2,954 meters high. The northern and eastern parts of Luzon have rugged mountains which are volcanic in origin. There are three large mountain ranges in Luzon. They are the Western Caraballo Mountain Range, the Sierra Madre Mountain Range and the Caraballo de Baler. Western Caraballo runs from north to south and divides itself into the Central Cordillera and the Northern Cordillera. It crosses the provinces of northern Luzon, west of the Cagayan River. The **Sierra Madre** begins at the town of Baler in the eastern part of Quezon Province and crosses the provinces of Cagayan, Isabela and Quezon. It is the **longest** continuous **mountain range** in the Philippines. The third mountain range, the Caraballo de baler, begins from the town of Baler and ends in the Strait of San Bernardino. This mountain range includes Mayon Volcano in Albay and Bulusan Volcano in Sorsogon. Outside of these big mountain ranges are the small mountain ranges of Zambales and the Tagaytay Ridge. The Zambales Range begins at Cape Bolinao, follows the coast of the China Sea and ends in the Bataan Peninsula. The Tagaytay Ridge crosses the provinces of Cavite and Batangas. Mount Makiling in Laguna and Taal Volcano are parts of the Tagaytay Ridge. Mindoro, Panay and Negros have small mountain ranges. The highest peaks in these parts are Mount Halcon in Mindoro and Kanlaon Volcano in Negros. Leyte and Samar are not as mountainous as the provinces mentioned above. Mindanao, on the other hand, has four distinct mountain ranges. They are the Eastern Mountain Range, which begins at Surigao and follows the Pacific coast; the Central-Eastern Mountain Range which begins at Butuan and extends south to Agusan on the East and to Pulangui on the west; the Central-Western Range, which begins at Mount Apo, follows the boundary of Cotabato, and ends in the Zamboanga Peninsula; and the Western Range which begins west of Iligan Bay and ends on the shores of Basilan Strait. VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES ========================= There are many volcanoes in the Philippines whose eruptions caused much damage to lives and property. Twenty-six of the volcanoes are considered active, while the rest are supposed to be dormant or "sleeping." The most famous of these active volcanoes are Iraya in Batanes; Taal in Batangas; Banahaw in Quezon; Mayon in Albay; Bulusan in Sorsogon; Hibok-hibok in Camiguin Island; and Makaturing in Lanao. **Mayon** and **Taal** are the most active of these volcanoes. They have erupted for no less than twenty-five times. Mayon is famous over the world for its perfect cone shape, while Taal is famous for being the smallest volcano in the world. In 1966, Taal volcano erupted, which led to the resettlement of the people of Volcano Island to other places. The Philippines is within what is called the seismic belt, that is, it lies in the path of earthquakes. Manila and many parts of Luzon experienced several earthquakes over the years including that of 1863, which caused the destruction of many residential houses and government buildings and the death of the famous priest, Father Pedro Pelaez in the Manila Cathedral; that of 1937, which destroyed, partially, or completely, many big buildings in Manila; that of 1968, when many buildings were partially destroyed while an apartment building was completely destroyed resulting in the death of hundreds of people; and that of 1990, which registered 7.8 on the Richter Scale, killing and injuring thousands of people and damaging about 20,000 square kilometers of densely populated areas in Luzon. CLIMATE ======= The Philippines has a **tropical and maritime climate** which is tempered by the breeze from the Pacific Ocean on the east and China Sea on the west. Based on rainfall and temperature, there are two major seasons: the dry season which extends from December to May, and the wet season which extends from June to November. The period from late November to February is usually cool. May is often the hottest month of the year, while January is the coldest. Even so, the climate in general is healthful. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, the first governor-general of the Philippines, describing it to the King of Spain, "This country \[the Philippines\] is salubrious and has a good climate..." Generally, typhoons have influenced the climate and weather of the country. These typhoons may be classified into "remarkable" and "ordinary." The former have destroyed millions of pesos worth of crops and property. Typhoons and tropical cyclones most frequently enter the Philippine area of responsibility (PAR) during the months of July to October. Some of the worst typhoons that ever struck the country include Uring in November 1991, Rosing in October 1995, Reming in November 2006, Ondoy in September 2009, Pepeng in October 2009 and Yolanda in November 2013. NATURAL RESOURCES ================= Nature has given the Philippines rich soil and plenty of natural resources. The rich valleys and fertile plains are planted to crops such as rice, corn, coconuts, sugar cane, bananas, pineapples and varieties of vegetables. The country has enough water resource for electricity; food such as fish, seaweeds, sea shells, as well as pearls for jewelry. There is an abundant supply of minerals like gold, copper, silver, lead, zinc, nickel, manganese and chromium, as well as non-metallic minerals like salt, clay, coal, sulphur, asbestos, limestones, gravel and gypsum. Gum resins and lumber can be obtained from the country's vast forests. The Philippines also has oil. Called "black gold", its discovery at Malampalaya, Palawan has encouraged foreign and Filipino firms to drill wells for oil. Its commercial exploration will greatly improve the country's economy. However, despite this natural abundance, conservationists and civil society have expressed concern over the depletion of forests, abuse and misuse of land resources and threats to marine and coastal ecosystems. A significant response by the Department of Environmental and Natural Resources (DENR) was its lobby for Congress to pass the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Bill in 1992. Now called R.A. 7586, the law is premised on the concept of the involvement of local communities in biodiversity conservation and habitat management. Thus, indigenous peoples living in the protected areas are given responsibility over their territories and sustainable livelihood alternatives. Other laws that protect our environment include the Philippine Clear Air Act of 1999, the Ecological Solid Waste Management of 2000, and the Clear Water Act of 2004. ECONOMY ======= **Rice** is the main crop of the country and is cultivated in large quantities in Central Luzon, Western Visayas and Mindanao. Its production, however, remains insufficient due to several factors. **First,** destructive typhoons and floods often destroy thousands upon thousands of rice lands leading to government importation of rice. **Second,** the agricultural sector remains backward despite government effort to modernize it through the introduction of programs like the "Masagana 99" technique in the sixties and the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program in recent years; the use of "miracle rice varieties"; the use of fertilizers and pesticides to increase rice production, which puts a toll not only on poor farmers, who oftentimes cannot afford them, but also on the environment, particularly on the quality of the soil. **Third,** the production shift to sources of biofuels such as *jathropa* and other cash crops, which command higher prices in the market, has also affected rice production in no small way. **Fourth,** the massive conversion of farmlands for residential and commercial use has also contributed to low rice productivity, not to mention the lost of farm labor. The major Philippine products for export include coconut oil, fresh bananas, pineapples, sugar, gum resins and abaca, among others. Among the country's growing industries are mining, lumber, metal, woodcraft, furniture, and petroleum. The Philippines is also among the world's supplier of semiconductors and manufactured goods like ignition wiring sets and other wiring sets used in vehicles, aircrafts and ships; cathodes of refined copper; and microprocessors. Clothing and clothing accessories are also produced in the country. The United States of America remains our top market for exports followed by Japan, Hong Kong, and the People's Republic of China. Other big markets of Philippine products are the Netherlands, Germany, Singapore, Malaysia, Republic of South Korea and Taiwan (National Statistics Office, 2007). Population ========== Based on the latest figures from the National Statistics Office (2008-2009), the Philippines has one of the fastest-growing population with a birth rate of 26.42 births/1000. Life expectancy stands at 67.89 years for men and 73.85 years for women. There are approximately 100 million Filipinos today as projected by the NSO. Concentrated in the more urbanized sections of the country, 84% of the population is functionally literate. As of 2009, an estimate of 35 million Filipinos is employed. Thirty-four percent of employed Filipinos are engaged in agriculture (hunting, forestry, and fishing); 15% work in the industry sector (mining and quarrying, manufacturing, electricity, gas and water and construction); while 51% are employed in the service sector (wholesale and retail trade, repair of vehicles, household goods; hotels and restaurant; transport, storage, and communication; financial, real estate, renting and business activities; education, health and social work, etc.). These figures raise the question whether the country is truly on its way towards industrialization or not. The majority of the Filipinos belong to the **Austronesian** ethnic group. Due to the early trade contacts and subsequent colonization by the Spaniards and later by the Americans, Filipinos today are a mixture of races. The offspring of a native Filipino and a foreigner, whether Chinese, Spaniard, American is called *mestizo.* With the phenomenal growth of Filipinos working overseas (OFWs) the *mestizo* group has expanded to include Arabs, Japanese, Koreans and Europeans. There are around 170 spoken languages with almost of all of them belonging to the Austronesian language family. Among the major languages are Bicolane, Bisaya, Cebuano, Chabacano, Hiligaynon/Ilonggo, Ilocano, Kapampangan, Maguindanaon, Maranao, Pangasinense, Tagalog, Tausug and Waray. Filipino is the national language with Filipino and English as the official languages of the country. Government ========== The Philippines is a Constitutional Republic with three co-equal branches: the executive, legislative and judiciary. The executive branch, headed by the President and the Vice President, administers the functions of the government through the cabinet that is made up of departments and headed by department secretaries. The legislative branch, which is responsible for enacting bills into law, is composed of the Senate (Upper House) and the House of Representatives (Lower House), led by the Senate President and the Speaker of the House, respectively. The judiciary consists of the system of courts with the Supreme Court as the highest court in the land and headed by the Chief Justice. For administrative purposes, the Philippines is subdivided into regions and provinces except for Metropolitan Manila. Each province is headed by a governor and has its own legislative body called *Sangguniang Panlalawigan.* The provinces, in turn, are composed of cities and municipalities. Cities and municipalities are further divided into barangays. A *barangay* is the smallest political unit of the country and headed by a *barangay captain.* The country has undergone five constitutional changes since the Malolos Constitution of 1899, which set up the First Filipino Republic with Emilio F. Aguinaldo as president. These *constitutions* are: 1. The 1935 constitution, which served as the basis for the transition Commonwealth government with Manuel L. Quezon as president followed by Sergio S. Osmena; 2. The 1943 Constitution of the Japanese-sponsored government which recognized the Second Republic under President Jose P. Laurel; 3. The 1935 Constitution, which set up the Third Republic under President Manuel A. Roxas, followed by Elpidio R. Quirino, Ramon F. 4. The 1973 Constitution that extended the term of President Marcos beyond the provision of the 1935 Constitution, and set up the fourth republic; and 5. The 1987 Constitution during the presidency of Corazon C. Aquino (as the president of the Fifth Republic), to that of Fidel V. Ramos, the short lived administration of Joseph E. Estrada and that of Gloria MacapagalArroyo. FILIPINO TRAITS AND VALUES ========================== The Filipino people have many common traits. Perhaps the most important trait of the Filipinos is their **hospitality.** They welcome visitors, whether Filipinos or non-Filipinos, with open arms and warm hearts. Visitors are given the best in the house and they would go to the extent of incurring debts to make their visitors contented, happy and comfortable. Filipino hospitality is unequaled and known the world over. Filipinos maintain **close family ties.** The family is the unit of society and consists, at least until very recent times, of the parents, the grandparents and the children. The head of the family is the father, but it is really the mother who governs. The mother does a lot of things for the family: she is the first teacher of the children; she is the treasurer of the home, the accountant, the censor, the laundrywoman and the cook. Thus, in many Filipino families, even the father calls the wife "Mama" or "Mommy". He dutifully hands over his salary or earnings to the wife, who in case of the father's illness, works to support the whole family. Present-day women's rights advocates in the country, however, call this "double-burden." The problem of the family is not the problem of the parents alone; it is all the problem of all the adult members of the family. If Juana, one of the children, wants to continue her studies, say in high school, the older brothers and sisters help the parents in sending her to school. If she finds employment, she in turn helps her parents, brothers, and sisters to send the younger children to school. Thus, cooperative work within the family circle is not uncommon. **Respect for the elders** is one of the best Filipino traits. Filipino parents exercise moral influence over their children. The latter obey their parents willingly and help them in their work. The younger men and women do not, as a rule, disturb their elders when the latter are talking or conversing with other people. Even among strangers, respect is shown by slightly bowing the head or by using some words of respect. The Tagalog *po* is commonly used by almost everybody to show respect even to a younger man (or woman) if the latter is a stranger. The Filipino is **sentimental**. This sentimentalism is shown in many ways. For example, someone from the province pays his friend from another province a visit. The visiting friend brings along with him gifts for the host's family. These gifts are called *pasalubong.* When it is time to go, the friend may feel deeply sad to depart from the friend's house. Kindness is never forgotten. The friend who is left behind also feels sad and gives the departing friend some *pabaon* like food or anything to give to the departing friend's family. Leaving home for another country or even for places within the Philippines is usually accompanied by much crying and silent tearful goodbyes. Filipinos as a people have several values. **Values** are those aspects in life that include customs, traditions, etc., which the people regard as necessary and important in their dealings with one another. One of these values is *pakikisama,* or **sense of togetherness** or comradeship. Pakikisama refers to doing somebody a good deed, such as helping a relative or neighbor build a house without asking for compensation, or helping someone look for a job, and so on. If one does these, he/she is said to be *mabuting makisama.* If one does the opposite, he/she is said to be *masamang makisama.* Pakikisama does not mean doing crooked or dishonest things in order to look good to others. Pakikisama is a positive value and means doing somebody a good turn or being helpful without ulterior motive. *Utang na loob* or **debt of gratitude** is another famous Filipino value. A person who receives favor from another, whether this person is a friend or a stranger, is expected to pay this debt of gratitude by returning the favor in the same measure, if not, more. A friend who fails to return a favor is called *walang utang na loob* or an ingrate. People who lack *utang na* *loob* are disliked or avoided. *Hiya* or *kahihiyan* is another Filipino value. It means **sense of shame.** To the Filipino, just like other Asian people hiya is something that a person must possess to a high degree. A person without hiya is called *walang hiya* or shameless. Because of this value, a Filipino would sometimes do something foolish in order to save face. Thus, because of hiya, a poor Filipino peasant will contract debt or borrow money from relatives, neighbors or friends in order to have a feast for the baptism of a son or daughter. On other occasions, many Filipinos borrow money to spend on food and other things to celebrate a town fiesta at the expense of the family budget. Out of shame or hiya, they do not want neighbors to think that they cannot afford to spend for the event. **CHAPTER 2** THE PHILIPPINES IN ANCIENT TIMES (200,000 B.C. -- 1300 A.D.) ============================================================ On the average, we Filipinos find it difficult to believe or even imagine the existence of an ancient and envolved people as our ancestors. These ancient Filipinos possessed a culture of their own comparable to other civilizations in Southeast Asia and the rest of Asia for that matters. The lack of awareness of our ancestry resulted to feelings to inferiority to other cultures and dependence on the influences brought in by colonizers and foreigners as sources of our identity as a people. Evidences, both material (economic, social, and political structures) and nonmaterial (language, literature, arts, and belief system) demonstrate that the ancient Filipinos were a productive and creative people. They produced their own unique technology and culture that were appropriate to their given natural environment, climate, and geography. Hence, Filipinos were already a civilized people long before the encounter with the West. EARLY SETTLERS ============== Some theories on Philippine prehistory suggest that the Philippines and the rest of the islands in Southeast Asia may have been sites of human evolution between 200,000 and 30,000 years ago. One theory says that during the ice Age, meters below its level. Because of this, large areas of land came to the surface and formed "land bridges" to mainland Asia. It is said that it was during this period that the first settlers were hunters and gatherers on an exploration trip. The earliest stone tools and animal fossils found in Cagayan Valley in northern Philippines were dated back to at least 200,000 years ago. Although no human fossils were found yet, the artifacts suggest their existence. Collectively, they were called Cagayan Man or *homo erectus philippinensis.* They had similar characteristic as the Java man of Indonesia ad Peking man of China. In 1962, a **skull cap** of man was discovered in the **Tabon caves of Palawan**. From this skull, archeologists learned that man had been in the Philippines for at least 22,000 years. The cave where the **Tabon man** was found was dated back to half a million years old and had been occupied for more or less 50,000 years. A piece of charcoal which dated back 30,000 years was also found which may indicate the first use of fire in the archipelago. The prehistoric people had a primitive culture characterized by the use of stone implement. They hunted animals such as the pygmy elephant and rhinoceros. In some languages of the Philippines, including Tagalog, the world for elephant is *gadya*. This shows that once upon a time there were elephants in the Philippines. They wore clothing made from materials that they got from nature. Some 25,000 to 30,000 years ago, another kind of settlers, the ancestors of the **Negritos** (Aeta, Ati, Dumagat), came to the Philippines by crossing the "land bridges." They were said to have come from the south, by way of Palawan and Borneo. Another Negrito immigrants used blow gun, bow and arrow. They practiced dry agriculture similar to the ***kaingin system*** that is practiced today by some hill and mountain people. Their tools were made of stone. Their clothing cosnsisted of bark of trees, and their houses were made of leaves and branches of trees. More that 7,000 years ago, long after the ice that covered the world melted, the resulting rise in the sea level ushered in the arrival of another group of people, the ***Austronesians.*** They came to Southeast Asia by boats from Southern China. They had brown skin (***Kayumanggi)*** and an early stone-age culture. Much later, some of them came to the Philippines from ***Indochina*** and South China also by boats. They built their houses with pyramidal roofs. They practiced dry agriculture and produced yams, rice, and *gabe.* Their clothing consisted of pounded bark of trees with various printed designs. The Kalingas, the Gaddangs, the Apayaos, the Igorots, and the Ilongots, all indigenous group of Luzon; the native Visayans; the Tagbanuas of Palawan, the Bagobos, the Bilaans, the Manobos, and the Tirurays of Mindanao, are probably descendants of this group. By 500 to 800 B.C., the early Filipinos knew how to make copper and bronze implements. They irrigated their rice lands and built the first ***rice terraces*** in the Philippines. Another migration allegedly occurred about 300 to 200 B.C., or more than 2,000 years ago. Those who came to Luzon by way of Palawan and Mindoro were said to have known Irrigation, smelting, and manufacturing of weapons, tools, utensils and ornaments made of iron and other metals. This Austronesian migration continued up to the beginning of the Christian era ing the 13^th^ century. The latest group was more advanced than the previous immigrants. They had a syllabary or alphabet that might have come from India. These Austronesians were the ancestors of the settlers that traded with ancient China and early Southeast Asian communities. They would later lay the foundations of Islam in Sulu and Mindanao. These theories of migrations, however, are still subjects of debates. The artifacts are not enough to warrant definite conclusion about Philippine prehistory. ECONOMIC LIFE ============= The ancient Filipinos practiced **agriculture**, which was the main source of their sustenance. Rice, coconut, sugar cane, cotton, banana, hemp, orange, and many kinds of fruits and vegetables were raised. Land cultivation was done in two ways: the kaingin system and tillage. In the **kaingin system**, the land was cleared land was then planted to crops. In the **tillage system,** the land was plowed and harrowed, then followed by planting. Pigefetta, the historian of the Magellan expedition which reached the Philippines in 1521, said that he found in Sugbu, (Cebu) such foodstuffs as *sorgo, orange, garlic, gourd, lemon, coconut, sugar cane,* and many fruits. The ancient Filipinos practiced irrigation. They increased their crop production by irrigating ditches. The rice terraces in Banawe, Mountain Province attest to this ancient practice. The ditches of these rice terraces are stone-walled and run for thousands of feet up the mountain side. If viewed from a distance, the whole rice terraces give the viewer the picture of a huge stairway to the sky. It is estimated that if placed from end to end, the length of the Banawe rice terraces would total about 19, 312 kilometers or almost half-way around the world from North Pole to South Pole. The rice terraces of Banawe is one of the Wonders of the World. Aside from agriculture, the ancient Filipinos engaged in **industries** such as fishing, mining, shipbuilding, poultry and livestock raising, logging, pottery, and weaving. Textiles like *sinamay* were woven with threads obtained from banana and cotton plants. The ancient Filipinos also domesticated chickens, native ponies, carabaos, pigs, and goats. **Fishing** was a common industry because most of the settlements were along the river and seas. Antonio de Morga, a Spanish official in the judiciary who wrote about the early Philippines, said that "this industry (fishing) is quite general in the entire country and is considered a natural activity for the selfsupporting of the people." Various methods of catching fish were used, such as the use of nets, bow and arrow, lance or spear, the wicker basket, hook and line, corrals, and fish poison. Mining was also another important industry before the coming of the Spaniards. In 1569, Miguel Lopez de legazpi reported to the victory of Mexico that there was "more or less gold...in all these islands; it is obtained from rivers and, in some places, from mines which the natives work." He mentioned Paracale in Camarines Norte, the Ilocos, the Visayas especially Cebu, and along the Butuan river in Mindanao, as places where "very good gold" could be found. **Shipbuilding and logging** were also thriving industries. Morga testified that many Filipinos were "proficient in building ocean going vessels." This skill can perhaps be explained by the abundance of thick forest in archipelago that are rich in hardwoods, and by the fact that the Philippines, being surrounded by water, naturally produced good sailors. The Filipinos shipbuilders built all kinds of boats for travel, war, and commerce. The Spaniards later classified these boats into ***banca, lapis, caracoa, virey, prau,*** and ***vinta.*** These boats carried products between Manila in Luzon and Cebu in Visayas and as far as Butuan and the rest of Mindanao. No currency was used in trading. Goods were bought and sold, through the ***barter system*** called ***baligya***. For example, a goat is exchanged for a big basket full of fish. Sometimes, the Filipinos would exchange gold for products sold by the Chinese, who trusted the Filipinos and consigned their goods to be paid only upon their return trip to the islands. Commerce extended far and wide into nearby foreign lands such as Borneo, Malaya, Thailand, Cambodia, Sumatra, and India. SOCIAL LIFE =========== The ancient Filipinos were divided into **social classes**. These were the nobles, the freemen, and the dependants. The **nobles,** composed of the chiefs and their families, were the early society's upper class. They were highly respected in their community. In the Tagalog region, the nobles usually carried the title of ***Gat or Lakan.*** One finds these words today in some surnames like Lakandula (Lakan Dula), Lakanilaw (Lakan Haw), Gatmaitan (Gat Maitan), Gatchalian (Gat Saian), Gatbonton (Gat Bunton), and many others. Next to the nobles were the **freeman** who may be regarded as the society's middle class during the ancient period of Philippine history the members of the lowest class were the **dependents** called ***alipin*** among the ancient tagalogs. The low social status of the dependent was acquired by captivity in battle, by failing to pay one's debt, by inheritance, by purchase, or by being pronounced guilty of a crime. Among the Tagalogs, the dependents were classified into ***aliping namamahay and aliping sagigilid.*** The ***namamahay*** had his own house and family. He served his masters by planting and harvesting his master's crops, by rowing the master's boat, and by helping in the construction of the master's house. On the other hand, the ***sagigilid*** had no house of his own, he lived with his master, and could not marry without the latter's consent. Among the Visayans, the dependents were of three kinds: the ***tumataban***, who worked for his master when told to do so; the ***tumarampuk,*** who worked one day a week for his master; and the ***ayuey***, who worked three days a week for his master. Dependent were further classified into three levels or grades: first, as full dependant (with one parent being one-half dependent and the other free). These levels were not permanent. Anyone could move up or down a level upon payment of debts or by purchase. Thus, there were no slaves in the real sense of the word \-\-\-- only dependents due to debts or captivity from war or battles. WOMEN'S POSITION IN SOCIETY =========================== The Filipino women, before the arrival of the Spaniards, enjoyed high position in society. They could own and inherit property and sell it; they could engage in trade and industry; and they could succeed to chieftainship of her community or barangay in the absence of a male heir. Wives also enjoyed the right to give names to their children. The names usually were derived from an event or trom the physical features of the child. Thus, a beautiful girl was named ***Si Maganda;*** a very healthy boy was named ***Si Malakas,*** and so on. The men respected the women. To show this respect, the men, when accompanying women, usually walked behind the latter. This was done not only to show respect for the women, but also to protect them from any harm that may come from behind. MARRIAGE CUSTOMS ================ In most cases, a woman of one class married into the same class. Thus, a noble married a woman from a noble family; a woman from the freemen class married into this class; and the man from the lowest class married into his own class. However, there were exceptions when a man, for example, showed bravery and courage in battle, or when he had become powerful enough to lead the people of his community. A man could marry as many women as he could support. His children by his first wife were considered legitimate children and could, therefore, inherit his property. The so-called illegitimate children were not given the right to inherit from their father. Courtship during that period of Philippine history was long and difficult. A man served the parents of the girl he loved for a years. He chopped wood, fetched water, and did errands for the girl's parents. When accepted by the latter, the marriage was then arranged. The man was required to give a dowry, ***called bigay-kaya***, which usually consisted of a piece of land or gold. To the parents of the girl, the man must give a gift ***called panghimuyat***. To the girl's wet-nurse, the man must also give a gift ***called bigay-suso.*** These arrangements were made by the parents of the bride and the groom. The marriage ceremony was simple. It consisted of the groom and the bride drinking from the same cup. Then an old man would announce that the ceremony was about to begin. A priestess would bow to the assembled guest and then would takes the hands of the couple and join them over a plate of uncooked rice. She would then shout and throw the rice to the guests. The latter would respond with a loud shout and ceremony was over. MIXED MARRIAGES =============== Mixed marriages, that is, marriages between a man and a woman belonging to different social classes, were not common. A marriage, for example between a dependent and a freeman would result in the division of their children into two classes. If the father was a freeman, the eldest, the third, the fifth, the seventh, and so on, belonged to father's class, The rest of the children, that is, the second, the fourth, the sixth etc., belonged to the mother's class. If there was only one child, this child was classified as halffree and half-dependent. If the number of children was odd, that is, three, five, seven etc., then the third, the fifth, and the seventh would become halffree and half-dependent. THE GOVERNMENT ============== The community called the ***Barangay*** was the basic unit of government. It consisted of 30 to 100 families. The Tagalog word "*barangay*" was derived from the Austronesian *balangay*, a boat which transported the Austronesian immigrants to the Philippines. The Spaniards changed the letter "I" in balangay to "r" and pronounced it the Spanish way: barangay. Each barangay was independent and was ruled by a chieftain. It was the primary duty of the chieftain to rule and govern his people justly and to promote their welfare. The subjects, on the other hand, served their chieftain in times of war with other barangays and helped him in tilling and sowing the land. They paid to attribute to him. This tribute was called *buwis,* the Tagalog word for "tax". The chieftain's children and other relatives were highly respected in the community and were exempted from paying tribute and from rendering personal services to the chieftain. The chieftain was powerful and exercised the ***power of the executive, the legislative, and the judiciary***. In war, he was the supreme commander. However, he was aided by a council of elders in his role as lawmaker. This council gave the chieftain some wise pieces of advice in order to guide him in the administration of justice. Relations existed between barangays. They traded with one another. Sometimes, alliances were concluded between barangays for mutual protection against a common enemy. An alliance was sealed through a ritual called ***sanduguan*** or blood compact. This entailed drawing of blood from the arms of the contracting parties, mixing their repective blood in a cup of wine, and drinking the mixture. Having drunk each other's blood, the contracting parties then became "blood-brothers" **HOW A LAW WAS MADE?** The chieftain of a barangay made the laws of the community. When he had a law in mind, he called in the council of elders to give their opinion. If the elders approved the proposed law, the chieftain ordered a town crier, called ***Umalohokan***, to announce to the community the approval of the law. With a bell in one hand, the umalohokan would ring it as he went along to call the attention of the people. Then he explained the new law to them. Any person violating the law was immediately arrested and brought before the chieftain for trial. DECIDING CASES ============== Most disputes during the ancient times were decided peacefully. The court of justice was composed of the chieftain as judge and the elders of the barangay as member of the "JURY." If conflicts arose between members of different barangays, the differences were resolved by arbitration. A board composed of elders from neutral barangays acted as arbiter. The trial of a case was usually held in public. The accuser and the accused faced each other with their witnesses. The witnesses usually took an oath to prove their honesty. The oath took such form as, "may the crocodile devour me if I tell a lie"; "may I die here and now if I do not tell the truth;" and so forth. Then the parties who do the ligitation present their arguments and their respective witnesses. The man who had more witnesses was usually judged to be a winner. If the defeated person contested the decision of the chieftain, the latter openly sided with the winner and compelled the loser to accept his decision. The loser had no other alternative than to accept the decision of the chieftain. THE TRIAL BY ORDEAL =================== The trial by ordeal was not unique to the ancient Filipinos. It was also done in Europe to determine who of the disputants was right or telling the truth. As practiced in the Philippines, trial by ordeal consisted of ordering the suspects, in the case of the theft, to dip their hands into a pot of boiling water. The suspect whose hand was scalded the most was judged guilty. Another form of trial by ordeal consisted of ordering the suspects to plunge into a deep river with their lances. The one who rises to the surface first was pronounced guilty. Still another from was ordering the suspects to chew uncooked rice. The one whose saliva was thickest was the culprit. **CULTURE** Clothing ======== When the first Spaniards came to the Philippines in 1521, they found the early Filipinos with a **culture** that was different from their own. Some aspects of this old culture were undoubtedly Malay, but the other aspects were probably the result of a different environment. Among the ancient Filipinos, the male clothing consisted of the upper and lower parts. The upper part was jacket with short sleeves called ***kangan,*** the color of the jacket indicated the rank of the wearer: the chief wore a red jacket, while those lower in rank wore either black or blue. The lower part of clothing was called ***bahag***, which consisted of a cloth wound about the waist, passing down between the thighs. The women were usually naked form the waist up. They wore a ***saya or skirt.*** Among the Visayans, this lower part was called ***patadyong***. A piece of white or red cloth, called ***tapis,*** was usually wrapped around the waist or the chest. The ancient Filipinos had no shoes. They walked about barefooted. Men usually wore a headgear called ***putong***, a piece of cloth wrapped around the head. The color of the putong showed the number of persons the wearer had killed. Thus, a man wearing a red putong had killed at least one man, and the one wearing an embroided putong had killed at least seven men. Ornaments ========= The ancient Filipinos wore ornaments made of gold and precious stone. Women as well as men wore armlet called ***kalumbig,*** pendants, gold rings, earrings, leglets, and bracelets. Gold was common, so the ancient Filipinos used it not only in making rings, armlet, and bracelets, but also as fillings in between the teeth. These fillings were made to adorn the teeth. The body as also adorned by tattooing including the face. The women also tattoed their arms and faces to make themselves beautiful. Among men, however, tattooing had another use. It was used as man's war record, that is, the more a man was tattooed the more he was admired by the people of his community for his bravery in battle. According to the first Spaniards missionaries who wrote about the ancient Filipinos, the Visayans were the most tattooed people of the Philippines. For this reason, the Spanish missionaries called the visayans, ***pintados*** or painted people. The Houses ========== The Filipino house of today in the barrios is no different from the typical ancient Filipino house. The ancient house was built of bamboo, wood and ***nipa palm.*** This kind of house was (and is) suited to the ***tropical climate*** of the country. The house was set on stakes called ***haligi***, which were made of bamboo. This held the house above the ground. The lower part of the house was enclosed with stakes. Fowls were placed inside the enclosure. To go up the house, one had to ascend a ladder made of bamboo. At night or when the owner of the house was not around, the ladder was drawn up. There was also a sort of gallery called ***batalan*** where household work was done. What is called the ***sala*** now was used not only as an area for receiving visitors, but also as a place to sleep in, a small room near the sala, called ***silid***, was a place where mats, pillows, and baskets of rice were kept. Among the Ilongots and the Kalingas of northern Luzon and among the Mandayas and the Bagobos of Mindanao, the houses were built on treetops. On the otherhand, the Bajaos or Sea Gypsies of Sulu had their houseboats. They lived in such houses because they are a sea-loving people. They roamed the seas for a living and for adventure. Education and System of Writing =============================== There were no formal schools but children of school age were taught in their own homes by their mother who their first teachers. Based on the testimony of the Spanish Jesuit missionary, father Pedro Chirino, there was hardly a man or woman who did not know how to read and write. Perhaps it is an exaggeration to say that the literacy rate was 100% but it is safe to say that the ancient Filipinos were generally literate. It is very likely that music and religion were also taught to the children for it is unthinkable that a religious people like the Filipinos would neglect the teaching of religion to the children. Our ancestor possessed a system of writing or alphabet called a syllabary, ***baybayin or alibata*** where every letter is pronounced as a syllable. The syllabary consisted of seventeen symbols, three of which are vowels (*patinig)* and fourteen are consonants (katinig). It is still debated whether the ancient Filipinos wrote from left to right or from right to left or from top to bottom or from bottom to top. Writing and language experts still argue about the writing orientation of the ***baybayin***. Perhaps Pedro Chirino, who wrote a book about the ancient Filipinos with whom he had early contacts, was correct when he said that the early Filipinos wrote from top to bottom and from left to right. The early Filipinos wrote on large leaves of plants and trees, and sometimes on barks of trees and bamboo tubes. They used the colored saps, of trees as ink, while they used pointed stick or iron as pencil. Some examples of this ancient writing that have come down to the present are found among the Hanunuo Mangyans of Mindoro and Palawan. +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Mga Kasabihan | **Salawikain | **Bugtong (Riddles)** | | (Sayings)** | (Proverbs)** | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Ang kapalaran ko di | Ang tumakbo ng | Isda ko sa Mariveles, | | ko man hanapin, | matulin kung matinik | nasa loob ang | | dudulog lalapit kung | ay malalim. | kaliskis | | talagang akin. | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | May tainga ang lupa; | Ang hindi lumingon sa | Nagtago si perico, | | may pakpak ang | pinanggalingan ay | nakalitaw ang ulo | | balita. | hindi makakarating sa | | | | paroroonan. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Huli man daw at | Pag may sinuksok, may | Matanda na ang nuno | | magaling ay | madudukot. | hindi | | naihahabol din. | | | | | | pa naliligo | | | | | | | | (sagot : pusa) | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ EARLY LITERATURE ================ The ancient Filipinos had a literature that may be classified into written and oral. Among the Tagalog, the oral literature consisted of *sabi (*maxims), *bugtong (*riddles), *talindaw (*boatsong), tagumpay (victory songs) and many others. In the nineteenth century, the kumintang became a love song. During the revolution it disappeared and was replaced by the kundiman. The early Filipinos had also written literature. The Ifugaos of Northern Luzon, for example, had epics which were originally recited but later on were written down. Their epics are the *Hudhud and the Alim.* The former glorifies ifugao history and its hero, Aliguyon. The Alim, on the other hand, tells the story of god that resemble the Indian gods in the epic *Ramayana*. The epic of the Ilocanos, *Biag ni Lam-Ang (life of Lam-Ang) originated even before the arrival of the Spaniards.* The Bicolanos have their epic called Handion. The Muslims, a very daring, brave, and courageous people have produced several pics: the Bantugan, Indarapatra and Sulayman, Bidasari, and Parang Sabil. The other nonmuslims and non-Christian peoples of Mindanao also have their epics, but these have not yet been written down completely and have not been translated into English or any of the well-known Philippine languages. Music and Dance =============== Filipinos are considered born musicians. Many of them play two or more musical instruments. Pigafetta, already mentioned earlier, that the natives of Sugbu (Cebu) played such musical instruments are the timbal, the cymbal, the drum, and other instruments, most of which were made of wood or bamboo. When an officer to the Spanish explorer Villabos went to Samar in 1543, he saw natives playing a stringed instrument called *Kudyapi,* among the Negritos of Zambales and Bataan, the favorite musical instruments were the *kulibaw*, which resembled the Jew's harp made of bamboo; the bansic, a short of flute made of bamboo; and the gangsa a kind of guitar. To the accompaniment of these musical instruments, the Negritos performed their potato dance in which a man was represented as a thief stealing sweet potatoes in the farm. They had also the torture dance which commemorated the capture of an enemy; the duel dance which represented a duel between two warriors; and the lovers dance in which a man danced around a woman to show his love for her. The Ilocanos had their musical instrument like the *kutibeng*, a sort of guitar with five strings: the *flute* and the *kudyapi*. Their favorite dances were the *kinallogong* (hat dance) and the *konnoton* (ant dance). Among the Visayans favorite dances were the *balitaw* (exchange of extemporaneous love verse) and *dandansoy* (courtship dance). Both these dances are still popular today. Among the Tagalogs, drama, dance, and music developed almost at the same time. This was because drama could not be staged without the accompanying music and dance. So the music and the dance were classified into *balatong, dalit, lulay, kumintang, tagulaylay, subli, barinbaw, tagayan*, and others. Thus, the ancient Filipinos from all regions had dances and songs for all occasions. The Arts ======== The earliest Filipino works of art may be seen in their tools and weapons. These tools and weapons were at first rough, but as time went on, the Filipinos began to polish them. Later, beads, amulets, bracelets, and other ornaments were used to improve their appearance. With the introduction of bronze, certain instrument were manufactured like bronze gongs, bells, and even drums. This indicates that the social arts such as dance and music were already developed in ancient times. The early Filipinos also used metal and glass. Simple weapons, such as daggers, bolos, knives and spears, were made with artistic designs in their handles. Pottery with beautiful designs was also made, while images made of wood, ivory and horn were carved. Muslims art, in particular, deals with plant and geometrical designs, while ifugao art deals with animal and human representations. Religious Beliefs ================= The prehistoric Filipinos believed that the soul was immortal. They also believed in life after death as evidenced by the manunggul jar, a container for bones of the dead. They believed in one supreme being they called *bathalang may kapal or simply bathala*. Aside from the supreme being, they also worshipped minor deities whose function were closely related to the daily life of the people. Thus, the god of agriculture was called *Idiyanale*; the god of death, *Sidapa*; the god of fire, *Agni;* the god of raindow, *Balangaw*; the god of war, *Mandarangan;* the goddess of harvest, Lalahon; the god of hell; *Siginarungan* and other gods of goddesses. The ancient Filipinos worshipped the sun and venerated the moon, the animals and birds for they believed in the interconnectedness of the unseen with the visible. Thus, the object of nature should be respected even every harmful and dangerous animals, like crocodiles, were venerated. Old trees too, were considered sacred and nobody was allowed to cut down such trees. Reefs, rocks, and crags were also revered, and dishes and kitchenwares were left on them as a sign of reverence. The soul-spirits called anito were venerated. This is called the "*cult of the dead*" the memory of dead relatives was kept alive by carving images made of gold, stone, and ivory. The image was called *larawan* or *likha* among the Tagalogs, *diwata* among the visayans, and *bulol* among the Ifugaos. The people offered prayer and sacrifices to these images or symbols in order to win their sympathy. Not all anitos were good; some were bad. But whether an anito was good or bad, the people prayed to it and offered various sacrifices to win its goodwill if it were good and to placate its anger, if it were bad the offerings or rituals were laid down by a woman priest called *baylana, babaylan, or katalona*, and occasionally by male priests. Burial ====== The ancient Filipinos believed in the life hereafter and the relationship between the living and the dead, which made them respect the memory of the dead. When a relative died, he/she was placed in a coffin and burial under his/her blouse. The living relatives placed his/her cloth, and other valuables in the coffin. This was done because the ancient Filipinos believed that in this way, the dead relative would be gladly received in the other world. Upon the death of a person, the neighbors and relatives made fires under his/her house. Armed sentinels guarded the coffin lest some sorcerers open it and thus release the foul smell of the dead person. Professional mourners were hired by the relatives of the dead person in order to show their deep feeling of loss. Mourning for a woman was distinguished from that of a man such that the former was called *morotal laraw*. When his death had been announced, all quarrels, and even petty wars, were stopped. Spears were carried with the tips pointing downwards; and the wearing of "loud" clothes was also prohibited. **CHAPTER 3** EARLY CONTACTS WITH NEIGHBORING COUNTRIES (900 -- 1400 A.D.) ============================================================ Though less studied due to scarce written sources, the topic on the Philippines' early contacts with its neighbors can now be better appreciated with the recent discovery of material evidences as well as new documentary sources. Oral and cultural evidence show that early on, the Philippines already had trade and cultural exchanges with its Asian and Southeast Asian neighbors. The seemingly scattered island group of people actively engaged in trade and commerce with their neighbors; an exposure that further enriched the economic life and culture of the early Filipinos, long before the coming of the West. Early Trade Routes and Contacts =============================== Ancient Filipinos, just like their Southeast neighbors, were expert seafarers and boat builders. They made all sizes and types of boats- big or small, single-hulled or outrigged. Because they had mastered the wind and sea currents, they could travel far and wide to trade with nearby Southeast and East Asian neighbors. Some scholars suggested they reached even as far as Champa (present-day Vietnam) and India. Thus, long before the coming of the Portuguese and Spaniards in the region, the Philippines had outside trade contacts and along with these, varied cultural exchanges took place. Scholars have yet to agree as to when and with whom these contacts began. O.W. Wolters said such a trade may have been there as early as the 3^rd^ Century, based on the pearls and gold excavated in Funan. Sulu was rich in pearls and gold was abundant in the country. Filipino historians and archeologists believe the Filipino-Chinese trade contacts began around the ninth century during the Tang dynasty (618-906 A.D.). They cite as evidence Tang stonewares that were found in the Babuyan Islands, along the coasts of Ilocos, Pangasinan, Mindoro (Puerto Galara), Batangas (Calatagan), Manila (Santa Ana), Bohol, Cebu, Jolo and Cagayan de Oro. If the Chinese did not bring these items directly to the Philippines, Chinese goods probably found their way to the islands by the way of the Borneo through Arab traders who had earlier direct trade contacts with the Chinese. Arab Trade Routes in Southeast Asia =================================== Between 900 and 1200 A.D., a group of people called Orang Dampuan from Southern Annam (Vietnam Today), established trading posts in Sulu. A flourishing trade developed between Champa (Annamese Kingdom) and the people of Sulu who were called Buranun. This trade proved favorable to the Orang Dampuans whose prosperity drew the ire of the Buranuns. In a fit of jealousy, the Buranuns massacred some Orang Dampuans causing the others to flee and return to Champa. It was not until the 13^th^ century that they would return to Sulu to trade peacefully once more. The famous pearl trade of Sulu also attracted another group of people known as the Banjar of nearby Borneo. Regular Trade relations ensued between Sulu and Banjarmassin. The Buranuns who had not yet forgotten their tragic experience with the Orang Dampuans, were also suspicious of the Banjars. But the traders of Banarmassin, aware of the fate of the Orang Dampuans were more diplomatic. Instead of antagonizing the Buranuns, they brought their beautiful princess to Sulu and offered her as a bride to the Buranun prince, who eventually married her. Sulu thus became a tribute-state of the empire of Sri-Vijaya, along with the Banjarmassin and Brunei. Sulu developed into an emporium to which trading ships of java, Sumatra, Cambodia, Siam, and China would anchor to savor Sulu's prosperous trade and splendor. **Arab traders**, who up to this point dominated this Southeast Asian trading, were later bared from the central Chinese coast. They relocated to the Malay Peninsula where they sought an alternative route starting from Malacca and passing through Borneo and the Philippines to reach Taiwan. They continued to carry Southeast Asian goods to the Western world using this southern route. They also carried Philippine goods on board Arab ships to the Chinese mainland through Canton. So keen was the competition that the Arab ships carried non-Chinese goods amounting to 20-40% of the total cargo. This lasted up to the Javanese or Madjapahit period (1377-1478). The Chinese trade in the Philippines greatly improved during the Ming dynasty (1368-1478). During this time Emperor Yung-lo sent a fleet of vessels to the Philippines, under the command of Admiral Cheng Ho, to visit Lingayen, Manila Bay, Mindoro, and Sulu in 1405-1406, 1408-1410 and 1417. The Chinese Emperor even tried to impose its suzerainty over Luzon, however, put an end to this ambitious plan. Economic and Cultural Exchanges =============================== Using the compass on sea voyages, Chinese traders competed with the Arabs from the eleventh to the twelfth century. Sung porcelain unearthed in Sta. Ana, Manila and Around the Laguna de Bai, attested to the success of this trade. By the thirteenth century, the Chinese had overtaken the Arabs in the region. Description of the lucrative trade between China and the Philippine archipelago can be found in Chao Jukua's Chu fan-chi (1225) where the Chinese mentioned the following places: Ma-I (Mindoro or Baé in Laguna), Min-to-lang (Mindanao), Ma-li-lu (Manila), Su-lu (Sulu), and Pi-shoye (Visayas). The Philippine trade goods included bulak (raw cotton), abaca, cloth of various patterns, hardwoods, gums, resins, betel nuts, pear shell, pink and blue coral trees, large conch shells, tortoise shells, sponges, rattan, beeswax, musk, sandalwood, leather, mats, and pepper. In exchange, China brought: iron bars, porcelain and pottery, silk chintz, black damask, java cloths, red taffeta, blue cloth, bronze gongs, small bells, mirror, scales, coins, jade, projectiles, gold, silver, censers, lead, colored glass beads, iron needles, tin, lead sinkers for fishing nets, lacquered ware, copper cauldrons, wine, ivory, and "tint" (a kind of Chinese silver money). Although trade was conducted in general through the barter system, by the eighth century, a type of currency began to be used in the form of barter rings. By the twelfth century, gold coins (piloncitos) began to be used as medium of exchange. With trade of products came cultural exchanges, including religion. These in turn, would influence the indigenous lifestyles, customs and religious beliefs of the ancient Filipinos. This is particularly true of the influences on our language, system of writing, technology, attire, ornaments, food and religious beliefs and practices. Much of the Chinese influence on the Filipino life is economic in nature. This is shown by the Chinese words that were adopted into the languages of the Philippines, particularly Tagalog. Here are some examples: **Chinese** **Tagalog** **English** ------------- ------------- ---------------------- Am-pau Ampaw Puffed rice or corn He-bi Hibi Dried salted shrimps Ke-tai Katay Cut up meat Le-piah Lipya Plowshare Hok-bu Hukbo Army Peh-chihai Petsay Chinese cabbage There are hundreds of Tagalog words which have their origin in Chinese. Most of these words have economic meanings. The Filipinos also learned from the Chinese the use of umbrellas, porcelain, gongs, the manufacture of gunpowder, metallurgy, and mining methods. Perhaps the Filipinos also borrowed the Chinese custom of having parents arrange the marriage of their children. Wearing white clothing, instead of black, for mourning of death of family and relatives, is also of Chinese origin, especially among the Visayans. Quite apart from the Chinese, the ancient Filipinos were also influenced by the Indians of India. The ancient Indians may not have settled in huge numbers in the Philippines, but their influence on Filipino culture may have come through the ancestors of the present Indonesians. The Malays who came to the Philippines were possibly Hinduized Malays, that is, Malays who professed the Hindu religion of India. This Indian influence is clearly seen in some of the words in the different languages of the Philippines, including Tagalog, which were derived from Sanskrit, the ancient language of India. Some of the Tagalog words of Sanskrit origin are the following: **Sanskrit** **Tagalog** **English** -------------- ------------- ----------------- Ahi Ahas Snake Swamin Asawa Husband or wife Bhaga Bahagi Part, portion Vartta Balita News Kotta Kuta Fort Dala Dala Fishing net Ganda Ganda Beauty Hari Hari King Lalarawa Lalawa Spider Tara Tala Star Sanskrit words or their variations are also found in Visayan and Maguindanaoan languages. Such words as agama (religion), pandita (priest or scholar), tumbaga (copper), baginda (emperor), sutra (silk), are of Sanskrit origin. Several deities in the myths of ancient Filipinos show traces of Indian influences: Indra Batara, Lord of the Universe; Idiyanale, god of agriculture; Agni, god of fire. A figurine of the Hindu goddess Padmapani was found in Butuan and was dated to 300AD. This could attest to that ancient contact between the Philippines and the Indian sub-continent. The Philippine Catholic wedding ceremony has Indian influences. The use of the cord and the veil during the Catholic marriage ceremony in the Philippines is Indian in origin. It is not originally Western or Spanish Catholic, because the non-Philippine Catholic marriage has no veil and cord ceremonies. The Laguna Copperplate discovered in the Pagsanjan, Laguna river delta in 1986 is another evidence of this early Philippine contact with its Southeast Asian neighbors particularly the Malays and Indonesians. Dated to 900AD, the copperplate contains an inscription in an old Philippine language, stating the full payment of a loan obtained by a woman trader from her contacts in the nearby Indonesia. The copperplate also shows shared knowledge in metallurgy and its use in trade and commerce to record transactions as certificate of credit and loan payment. THE COMING OF ISLAM =================== After Mohammad's death in 632 A.D., Islam spread outside of Arabia in two stages. In the first stage, Islam was brought to the rest of the Middle East, Northern Africa, Spain and Central Asia. In the second stage, Muslim missionaries travelled with Arab merchants to India, China, and to Southeast Asia where a number of them (traders and also missionaries) settled and intermarried with members of the royalty. They also set up mosques and madrasahs (schools). In the Philippines, Islam was introduced by Tuan Masha'ika, a trader from Malaya, and his companion Tuan Maqbalu who came to Sulu in the 1240's. According to Sulu genealogy called Tarsila, his wealth increased and with it, the status of Muslims in the communities was raised. By 1380, when a missionary from Java, Karim ul' Makhdum arrived in Buansa (Sulu), he found a thriving Muslim community that welcomed him and his efforts to strengthen Islam around the Mosque he built in Tubig Indangan, Tawi-tawi. Ten years later (1480), Rajah Baginda arrived from Sumatra. He further deepened Islamic consciousness among the Muslims in Sulu by building more madrasahs in the area. He later rose to a position of power tin Sulu. But it was Abu Bakr (who married Rajah Baginda's daughter, Paramisuli), who succeeded in establishing a government similar to the sultanate of Arabia. Meanwhile, in Maguindanao (present-day Cotabato and Lanao) Serif Kabungsuan arrived from Jahore, now a state of West Malaysia, and converted many inhabitants to Islam. He became the first sultan of Maguindanao. So rapid was the spread of Islam that when the Spaniards first arrived in 1570, they found Maynila and nearby places with Muslims connections. The rulers of the Kingdom of Maynila were found to be related by blood and marriage to the royal house of Muslim Brunei. TEACHINGS OF ISLAM ================== The basic tenets of Islam are found in the Qur'an (Koran), the holy book of the Muslims. Written in Arabic, the Koran is considered the word of the Supreme Creator, Allah, as directly communicated by the angel to the prophet Mohammad. Among the teachings of the Koran are the following: - There is only one Supreme Being, Allah, the creator of the Universe and all of humankind. - Allah is just and merciful God and it is Allah's desire that all should repent of their sins, purify themselves so they could enter Paradise after death. - Life In this world is only temporary and one's good deeds, as well as the bad deeds, are listed by an angel for final judgement on the last day on the last day of the entire humanity. Each one will be judged according to what one has done in his lifetime. - The Korean forbids any human or animal representation in their art. Only geometric patterns are allowed. - Eating pork, drinking wine, gambling and other vices are forbidden in Orthodox Islam. - Islam forbids loans and usury. - Muslims are duty-bound to help the poor, the orphans and widows. - Telling lies, stealing, adultery and murder are all grave sins that deserve serious punishment. - Every Muslim must have goodness expressed in faith in God and such virtues as patience, faithfulness, honesty, industry, honor and courage. - A follower of Allah has to observe the following rituals or obligations: a declaration of faith in the oneness of God (Shahada); prayer facing the east (Mecca) five times a day (salah); fasting (sawm); giving the alms (zakat), and a one-time pilgrimage to Mecca (hadji). Fasting is observed during the Ramadan, which is held at the ninth month of the Muslim calendar. No solid food are taken from early dawn until the sun sets. They purify themselves by praying and practicing good deeds and selfrestraint. The Sultanate ============= Unlike the barangays of the non-Muslim ancient Filipinos which were smaller in size and very much decentralized, the Sultanate governed a much larger territory through a centralized network of officials with the Sultan at the top. **CHAPTER 4** ENCOUNTER WITH THE WEST (1400 -- 1600) ====================================== To the West, for quite a long time, the Philippines and the rest of the world was *Tierra Incognita* (Unknown Lands). Coming into the region for purposes of trade and other reasons (Christianization and civilizing the "uncivilized"), these lands were new and exciting "discoveries" for the Europeans. But this is certainly not true of the Filipinos, of the "Indians" of America and the "Blacks" of Africa. These peoples, unknown to the West, have long inhabited these lands and evolved their own civilizations that are unique to their given environment and history. The West, led by Portugal and Spain, rival each other for the possession of rich colonies in America, Asia and Africa. With her naval supremacy, daring and imaginative explorers, and a Spanish Pope who drew up treaties defining territorial rights to her, Spain won over his rivals. Using both the "sword and the cross" Spanish conquistadores and missionaries succeeded in establishing colonies in the Americas without much resistance. Until the fatal battle in Mactan, Cebu, an island in the Philippines, when Spain's famed explorer, Ferdinand Magellan, was killed by the local chieftain Lapulapu. It took almost fifty years before another attempt to colonize the islands succeeded under Miguel Lopez de Legazpi. After meeting stiff resistance in Cebu Legaspi later established the first European settlement in the archipelago. Then he moved to the island of Luzon where he founded a permanent Spanish colony in the kingdom of Maynila. THE COMING OF THE SPANIARDS =========================== How and why the Spaniards and the Portuguese came to the "Orient" (the European's term for Asia or the East) is a long story. In the sixteenth century, Europe was experiencing some changes because of the growth of industry and commerce, the advances in science, the improvement in the science of navigation, and the invention of machines and marine instruments. Added to this was the desire of the Europeans to know more about the countries of the "Orient" because of the stories told by the Christian crusaders of Europe, who went to the **Holy Land** to reclaim it from the Muslims. The stories led many Europeans to admire the wonders of the East. Also, some Europeans were already trading with Asian countries. Oriental spices, silk, fruits, attar of roses, Persian rugs, perfumes and precious stones were easily sold in Europeans markets at big profits. This stimulated more trade with the countries of Asia. The **Venetians** or citizens of Venice, which later became a city of Italy, enjoyed this monopoly at the start. Soon after, the Portuguese, the Spaniards, and other peoples of Europe began to trade with Oriental countries. As a result, rivalry developed among the European countries. This **commercial rivalry** led to European expeditions to Asia. The Trade Routes ================ At the time the Europeans were developing their trade with Asia, there existed three trade routes connecting Europe to Asia. The **first** was the **Northern Route** which passed through Central Asia by land, then to the cities of Samarkand and Bokhara, then around the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea, and finally to Constantinople in the Mediterranean. The **second** was the **Central Route** which started from Malacca in the Malay Peninsula, then to the Indian Ocean and the Indian ports, then to the Persian Gulf to Baghdad and Constantinople, and finally to Cairo in the Mediterranean. The **third** was the **Southern Route** which also started from Malacca, then to the Indian Ocean and to the ports of India, then to the Red Sea, and finally to Cairo in the Mediterranean. In the fifteenth century an important event took place which led to research for new routes. In 1453, the **Turks** captured the city of Constantinople through which two routes passed. They closed the Northern and Central Routes. However, they allowed the Venetians to use the Southern Route on condition that they pay a certain sum as fee. The Venetians, therefore, came to monopolize the Southern Route. This proved the advantageous for them, since they controlled the European trade to the East. This Venetian monopoly compelled Portugal and Spain to look for another route in Asia so they could continue their lucrative trade with the Asian countries. Early Voyages to Asia ===================== Of all European countries, **Portugal** was the first to send expeditions to the East. One of the most famous Portuguese navigators was **Prince Henry,** who was also called, "The Navigator." In his desire to make Portugal a sea power, he sent an expedition to the Azores, near the coast of Africa in 1421. This expedition "discovered" the islands of Madeira and the Azores and soon they were developed into Portuguese colonies. Later, Prince Henry himself led expeditions to Western Africa, using the **instruments for navigation** he developed, like the astrolabe, the windrose compass, and the caravel, which was a kind of ship. Prince Henry's voyages inspired other explorers to sail to the East. In 1487, the Portuguese navigator Bartholomew Diaz "discovered" the **Cape of Good Hope** and continuing his voyage, reached Calicut, India. This voyage marked the first time that a European country, through her explorer, reached the East by sailing around outermost tip of the continent of Africa. Spain, upon learning of this successful voyage, sent an expedition to what is now North America. **Christopher Colombus,** a native of Genoa, which later became a part of Italy, went to Spain and offered his services to the King and Queen. Sailing from Spain, he "discovered" **North America** in 1492. He tough that large mass of land he had "discovered" was Asia. Later, **Amerigo Vespucci,** also an Italian, was sent by Spanish King and Queen to explore what Colombus had found. The geographers at the time thought that Amerigo found a "New World," and so they named this land, America. Other "discoveries" followed soon after. In 1500, Vicente Pinzon "discovered" what is now Brazil. 1513, Nunez de Balboa crossed what is now Panama and "discovered" the Pacific Ocean. These geographical "discoveries" led to more explorations of new lands and their development as colonies of European Countries. The Division of the World ========================= The fact that Portugal was the first country to sail to the East and establish colonies earned her the prestige as the first sea power to chart an alternate passage to India. On the other hand, Spain, which sent explorers to Americas, began to lay claim to these areas. Thus, a sea **sea rivalry** resulted from the "discoveries" made by Spain and Portugal. To avoid possible war between the two great nations, **Pope Alexander VI**, a Spaniard, whose family name Borja was Italianized into Borgia, issued a bull in 1493 dividing the world into two. All lands south and west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands were to belong to Spain. Portugal, on the other hand, was to take possession of the continent of Africa. In order to make this provision clear, the Pope issued another bull on the same day (May 3) by which an imaginary line was drawn from north to south at 100 degrees west of the Azores. Lands to be discovered east of this imaginary line would belong to Portugal, and those on the west would belong to Spain. But in September of the same year (1493) the Pope, being a Spaniard, nullified this provision of the second bull by allowing Spain to own lands to be discovered in the East, which properly belonged to Portugal. The King of Portugal protested the decision of the Pope because it violated the rights of Portugal as provided for in the second bull of May 3, 1493. To avoid any conflict between the two nations, they concluded the **Treaty of Tordesillas** on June 7, 1494. The important provisions of this treaty were the following: a. An imaginary line was drawn from north to south at a distance of 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. Lands to be discovered east of this line would belong to Portugal, and those on the west would belong to Spain. b. If the Spanish ships discovered lands east of the demarcation line, the said lands should be turned over to Portugal, and lands discovered by Portuguese ships west of the line should be turned over to Spain. c. No Portuguese ships shall be sent to lands belonging to Spain, and vice versa, for the purpose of trading with them. The Magellan Expedition ======================= **Ferdinand Magellan** was a Portuguese who went to Spain to offer his services to the Spanish King. He had seen battles in Malacca and Africa for the King of Portugal, who ignored Magellan rather than reward him for his services to the Crown. This hurt Magellan, so he left Portugal for Spain. With the help of his father-in-law and Don Juan de Aranda, a man occupying a very high position in the Spanish India House of Trade, Magellan was able to see King Charles I of Spain. The meeting between the two was held in 1518. Magellan, with the help of visual aids like maps and illustrations, explained to the young King that he could reach the **Moluccas**, then known as the Spice Islands, by sailing west. Moreover, he told the King that the Moluccas belonged to the Spanish side of the demarcation line, drawn according to the Treaty of Tordesillas. So impressed was the youthful King that he agreed to send an expedition to the Spice Islands under the command of Magellan. The expedition consisted of five ships: the flagship *Trinidad*, the *Concepcion*, the *Victoria*, the *Santiago*, and the *San Antonio*. Magellan and his men heard Mass in the Church of Santa Lucia de la Victoria, after which, the captains and the crew of the ship took an oath of loyalty to Magellan as their commander-in-chief. Amidst the cheer of the people and the ringing of church bells, the ships sailed down the Quadalquivir River to San Lucas de Barrameda. On September 20, 1519, the expedition left port and sailed southward across the Atlantic. After two months of difficult voyage, hardship and hunger, the Magellan expedition reach what is now Pernambuco in Brazil. From here, Magellan continued his voyage to Rio de Janeiro and reached the Rio de la Plata in February 1520. In March, he reached Port St. Julian at the southern tip of South America, where mutiny of his captains took place. Magellan suppressed the mutiny and punished the rebels severely. Continuing his voyage, Magellan reached the southernmost tip of South America. He crossed a strait to the Pacific Ocean. This strait now bears his name, the Strait of Magellan. By this time, he only had three ships remaining. With courage and determination, Magellan crossed the Pacific and reached the Ladrones Islands, now the Marianas, in March 1521\. He ordered his men to rest and to get some fresh food and water. Some of the natives there stole one of his boats. In anger, Magellan named the islands *Islas de Ladrones* (Islands of Thieves). After allowing his men to rest and procure provisions, Magellan continued his voyage. On March 17, 1521, he sighted the mountains of what is now **Samar**. This event marked the coming of the first Spaniards in the Philippines. The next day, Magellan ordered his men to land at **Homonhon** islet so the sick men could be taken care of. Having rested, Magellan proceeded to the islet of **Limasawa,** which at that time was ruled by **Rajah Kulambu**. He befriended the *rajah* and his brother, Si Agu, and sealed their friendship with a blood compact. This was the **first blood compact** between Filipinos and the Spaniards. On Easter Sunday, March 31, Magellan ordered a Mass to be celebrated on the islet. Father Pedro de Valderrama, who accompanied the expedition, celebrated Mass near the seashore. This was the first Mass celebrated in the Philippines. Afterwards, Magellan ordered that a large cross be planted on the top of a hill overlooking the sea. Pigafetta said, "After the cross was erected in position, each of us repeated a Pater Noster and an Ave Maria, and adored the cross; and the kings \[Kulambu and Si Agu\] did the same." Magellan took possession of the islands in the name of King Charles and called them the Archipelago of St. Lazarus because it was on St. Lazarus day that he found the islands. The First Baptism ================= Magellan stayed only a week in Limasawa because there was not enough food in the islet. Hearing of a rich island not far away, he ordered his captains to sail from what is now Cebu. Guided by Rajah Kulambu, the ships entered the harbor of Cebu on April 8, 1521. Magellan told his Malay slave, Enrique, to assure the people of Cebu that they came as friends and not as enemies. The Cebu chieftain, **Rajah Humabon**, welcomed the Spaniards and soon a blood compact ensued between him and Magellan. Gifts were exchanged between the parties of the blood compact. On April 15, 1521, Mass was celebrated in Cebu. A cross was erected and Magellan persuaded the Cebuanos to become Christians. Some 800 natives became Christians that day, among them Rajah Humabon, who was given the Christian name Carlos in honor of King Charles of Spain, and his wife, who was given the name Juana, in honor of King Charles' mother. To commemorate this event, Magellan presented Juana an image of the Infant Jesus. The Infant Jesus is now the Patron of Cebu. THE BATTLE OF MACTAN ==================== Meanwhile, a quarrel between two chieftains of the neighboring island of Mactan occurred. Rajah Sula asked Magellan's help to defeat his rival, Rajah si Lapulapu, who according to Sula, refused to recognize the King of Spain as his sovereign. Magellan at once accepted the invitation to interfere in the local quarrel in order to show his might. He and around sixty of his men, all well-armed, sailed for Mactan early in the morning of April 28. Si Lapulapu, who refused to listen to Magellan's demand that he pay tribute to Spain, prepared to fight to the end. In the battle that followed, Magellan was wounded in the leg. Seeing this, the brave people of Mactan rushed at him and killed him with their spears. With the death of Magellan, the Spaniards fled to their ships and left. Some of them, however, returned to Cebu and there, while attending a party given by Rajah Humabon, were massacred by some Cebuanos. This horrific event happened because some Spaniards robbed the natives and raped some women. The Importance of the Expedition ================================ The remaining Spaniards decided to leave Cebu. Of the three ships, one was burned because it had become useless. Two ships remained: the Victoria and the Trinidad. The Victoria was to sail to Europe by way of Africa, while the Trinidad was to return to Europe by the way of the Pacific. The Trinidad was captured by the Portuguese, while the **Victoria**, commanded by **Sebastian del Cano**, succeeded in reaching Spain. Magellan's voyage across the Atlantic and the Pacific was the greatest single voyage ever known to man in early modern times. The hardship, especially the hunger and the cold weather that the crew of the Magellan expedition experienced, remains unsurpassed to this day. The route that Magellan took in reaching the Philippines was a new "discovery" then, which put an end to the Venetian monopoly of the Southern Route. From this time on, Spain became supreme in the building of colonial empire that only Great Britain in later modern times was able to equal. More importantly, insofar as geography was concerned, Magellan's voyage proved conclusively that the earth was round. Insofar as Filipinos were concerned, Magellan's expedition was significant because it led to other Spanish expeditions to the Philippines. These expeditions especially that of Legazpi's, led to the Spanish colonization of the Philippines and with this, contacts between Europeans and Filipinos were established. The Villalobos Expedition ========================= The return of the Victoria to Spain won the admiration of the King and the Spanish people. Encouraged by the result of the Magellan expedition, King Charles sent other expeditions which, however, failed. These were the **Loaysa** expedition of 1525-1526, commanded by Father Juan Garcia Jofre de Loaysa; the **Cabot** expedition of 15261530 commanded by Sebastian Cabot; and the **Sayavedra** expedition of 1527-1528, commanded by Alvaro de Sayavedra, which reached Mindanao but did not succeeded in settling in any of the islands. Meanwhile, Spain and Portugal quarrelled over the possession of the Moluccas. The monarchs of the two countries were close relatives and so they agreed to settle the question of ownership by peaceful means. On April 22, 1529, Spain and Portugal signed the *Treaty* of Zaragoza, under which Portugal won possession of the Moluccas after paying Spain the sum of 350,000 ducats. To avoid future misunderstanding between the two countries, another imaginary line was drawn from north to south at 2971/2 leagues east of Moluccas. Lands to be found on the west of this line would belong to Spain, while those on the east would belong to Portugal. In paying Spain a sum to get the Moluccas, Portugal bought what was rightfully hers in the first place. The Moluccas Islands lay east of the demarcation line as provided in the Treaty of Tordesillas. For many years after the conclusion of the Treaty of Zaragoza, Spain respected its provisions. However, from 1538-1541, King Charles of Spain agreed with his viceroys in Mexico and Guatemala that expeditions should be sent to the East, particularly to the Spice or Moluccas Islands. The Viceroy of Mexico chose his brother-in-law, *Ruy Lopez de **Villalobos**,* to command the expedition. With six ships, Villalobos left Mexico on November 1, 1542, crossed the vast Pacific, and reached Mindanao in February 1543. The natives of Mindanao refused to have any dealing with the Spaniards. Faced with starvation, Villalobos ordered his men to plant corn to feed themselves. But the crop failed and Villalobos was forced to send one of his men, Bernardo De la Torre, to Tandaya (now Samar) to get some food. De la Torre met the local chieftain, **Makanadala**, who gave him enough food. Villalobos, in his pleasure, named the islands of Samar and Leyte, *Felipinas* in honor of Prince Philip of Spain, who later became King Philip II. Leaving the Philippines, Villalobos sailed for the Moluccas where they were captured by the Portuguese. They were later set free and Villalobos tried to sail for Mexico but died in Amboina in 1546. The Legazpi Expedition ====================== Many years passed before another expedition was sent to the Philippines. In 1556, upon the suggestions of the Viceroy of Mexico, an expedition to the East was sent by King Philip II, who succeeded his father, King Charles I. King Philip emphasized that the expedition should not enter territories belonging to Portugal. The purpose of the expedition was to survey the trade in spices and make a report on it. The King also specifically ordered that a new return route from the Oriental islands to Mexico be discovered. The King chose **Father Andres de Urdaneta**, who was a member of the Loaysa expedition, as pilot of the new mission. **Miguel Lopez de Legazpi** was appointed head of the expedition. With four ships and about 380 men, Legazpi sailed from the Mexican port of Navidad on November 21, 1564. One of the ships go lost on its way but was found later and ordered to head back to Mexico after reaching Mindanao. The expedition reached Cebu in February 1565. Later, Legazpi sailed to Cibabao (Leyte) then to Samar. Here, he concluded a blood compact with some of the chieftains, one of whom was **Bankaw**, *Datu* of Limasawa. Early in March, he sailed to Camuigin Island, then to Butuan in Mindanao, and then to Bohol where he enetered into a blood compact with **Datu Si Katuna** and **Si Gala**. The scarcity of food in Bohol led Legazpi to order his men to sail for Cebu. The Discovery of a new Route ============================ Having settled in Cebu, Legazpi ordered the return of the ship San Pedro to Mexico. It was to be piloted by Father Urdaneta and accompanied by Legazpi's grandson, Felipe de Salcedo. Sailing from the port of Cebu on June 1, 1565, Father Urdaneta steered the Ship northeastward from the Philippines in wide arc through the Pacific and ended in Santa Catalina, in California. After overcoming many difficulties, the ship sailed down the California coast to Mexico, arriving at the port of Navidad on October 1. From Navidad, the ship sailed to Acapulco. With this return voyage, Father Urdaneta discovered a new route, which the Manila galleons would follow in later years. FIRST SETTLMENT IN CEBU ======================= Legazpi and his men entered Cebu harbor on April 27. The Cebuanos were hostile to him probably because in the past, some white men who look like Spaniards maltreated them. Legazpi explained to the Cebuanos that the white men who maltreated them were not Spanish but Portuguese. He also told them that he wanted the Filipinos and the Spaniards to be friends. The Cebuano chieftain, **Tupas**, did not believe him and the Cebuanos and the Spaniards found themselves in skirmishes. Tupas fled to the mountains after setting all the houses on fire in what is now Cebu City. The day after the skirmish, a Spaniard found the image of the Infant Jesus which Magellan gave to Juana, Rajah Humabon's wife, forty-four years earlier. The image was not burnt. Legazpi, although victorious, applied a **policy of attraction**. He invited the Cebuanos to come down from the mountains and promised not to harm any of them. Convicted that Legazpi was sincere, Tupas and his men returned to the lowland and entered into an agreement with Legazpi with the help of Tupa's brothers, Si Makayo and Si Katapan. The **agreement** provided that (1) the Filipinos promised to be loyal to the King of Spain and to the Spaniards; (2) the Filipinos promised to help the Spaniards in any battle against an enemy; and in return, the Spaniards promised to protect the Filipinos from all enemies; (3) a Filipino who had committed a crime against a Spaniard should be turn over to Spanish authorities, while a Spaniard who had committed a crime against a Filipino should be turn over to the Filipino chieftain; (4) goods to be sold, to either the Spaniards or the Filipinos should be moderately priced; and (5) an armed Filipino would not be allowed to enter the Spanish settlement. With the conclusion of this agreement, peace and reign in Cebu, Legazpi then turned his attention to the founding of a Spanish settlement. A land, donated by Tupas and other Cebuano chieftains, was used as Spanish settlement. This was in the form of triangle one side of which faced the land and the other sides faced the sea. A fort was constructed and the Spaniards called it **Fort San Pedro**. Initially, the Spanish settlement was called **San Miguel**. But Legazpi remembered the unharmed image of Infant Jesus and renamed the settlement, "City of the Most Holy Name of Jesus." THE SETTLEMENT IN PANAY ======================= Legazpi was beset with many problems in Cebu. One was the bad feeling of some of his own men who refused to work. Some of them robbed the graves of the Filipinos. Legazpi acted justly and punished all to those who refused to cooperate with him. There was also a conspiracy among the Spanish soldiers to seize the ship San Pablo. The captain of the boat informed the **Master of Camp**, **Mateo del Saz**, about it and the conspirators were arrested. The leader of the conspiracy was beheaded, and the rest was pardoned. Legazpi also faced the hostility of the Portuguese. The latter realized that the Philippines lay on the Portuguese side of the demarcation line. The Portuguese captain, **Gonzalo de Pereira**, harassed Legazpi by blockading Cebu in order to starve the Spaniards. With the help of Cebuanos, Legazpi succeeded in forcing Pereira to leave the Philippines. Faced with these problems, Legazpi decided to move to Panay. Upon learning that there was a plenty of food there, he and some of his men sailed for Panay in 1569. On the banks of the Panay River, Legazpi founded the second Spanish settlement in the Philippines. He won over the people of Panay by convincing them of his peaceful intentions. The Spanish missionaries, the Augustinian friars, converted some natives to Christianity. The friendliness of the Filipinos was shown when they brought food to Legazpi. Consequently, the Spaniards were saved from starvation. The First Spanish Voyage to Manila ================================== With Panay as his home base, Legazpi decided to spread Spanish rule to other islands of the archipelago. He sent small expeditions to the other islands of the Visayas. Masbate, Burias, and Ticao were claimed in the name of the King of Spain. Then the same expedition, headed by Captain Enriquez de Guzman sailed for southern Luzon reached Albay. At almost the same time, **Juan de Salcedo**, Legazpi's younger grandson, led a small expedition to the north. With a few Spanish soldiers and about 500 Visayans, Salcedo sailed to Talim Island and claimed it for Spain. Then he continued his voyage until he reached Lubang Island, near Mindoro, and fought Filipinos who refused to recognize him. Defeating the people of Lubang, Salcedo returned to Panay after reaching the outer rim of Manila Bay. He reported to his grandfather that **Manila** was a prosperous Muslim kingdom. Legazpi then decided to send expedition in Manila. This expedition left Panay for Mindoro on May 8, 1570, and stayed there for five days. Then the voyage to Manila Bay was continued. The Spanish forces was now divided into two; one was headed by **Martin de Goiti**, who succeeded Mateo del Saz as Master of Camp, and the other was commanded by Salcedo. When they reached Batangas, Salcedo explored the Bonbon River and what is now Taal, while Goiti explored Balayan. In Taal, Salcedo had an armed encounter with some Filipinos. He was wounded in the leg, but the Spaniards with their superior weapons won the skirmish in the end. Then Salcedo rejoined Goiti and the two proceeded to Manila by sea. At that time, Manila or *Maynila*, as it was called by the natives, was a thriving Muslim kingdom ruled by **Rajah Sulayman** or Soliman. The kingdom was south of the Pasig River in what is now Fort Santiago. Goiti demanded that Sulayman paid him tribute, but the ruler of Manila refused. On May 24, Goiti fired a cannon shot to recall a boat he had sent on an errand. Sulayman and his men thought that it was a signof Spanish hostility, and so they answered with shots from their native cannons called *lantaka*. The superior fire power of the Spaniards led the Filipinos to burn down their houses and left Manila in the hands of the enemy. But Goiti did not stay in Manila. He returned to Panay to report to Legazpi what happened. THE FOUNDING OF MANILA ====================== Legazpi was happy to hear from Goiti. He informed his men that the King of Spain appointed him as governor and **captain-general** of the islands, which was equivalent to governor-general. He was, therefore, the **first governor-general** of the Philippines. Legazpi also informed them that the King ordered them to colonize the rest of the archipelago. At this time, however, food became scarce in Panay. Father Diego de Herrera, an Augustinian friar, suggested that they settle in Luzon instead. So Legazpi decided to leave for Luzon on April 20, with Manila as the object of his expedition. In Manila, Rajah Sulayman, realizing the firepower of the enemy, ordered his people to burn their houses and to retreat in the interior. At the same time, he gathered a force of fierce warriors from the barangays of Pampanga and Bulacan, and fought the enemy in the **Battle of Bangkusay** in Tondo. He and the warriors were defeated. What happened to Sulayman was not clear. Some say he died in the battle. Others say that he escaped to the interior. At any rate, the Filipinos were defeated and Legazpi took over Manila in1571. Legazpi began laying the foundation of a new city. Manila was in ruins so he ordered his men to build new houses. A church was also constructed for the missionaries, while a big house was built as the governor's official residence. On June 24, 1571, Legazpi made made **Manila the capital** of the Philippines. King Philip the II later called Manila, "Distinguished and Ever Loyal City". On the same day that Legazpi declared Manila as the capital of the archipelago, a city government or *ayuntamiento* was organized. He appointed two *alcaldes* or magistrates, an *alguacil mayor* or chief constable, twelve *regidores* or legislative council members, and one escribano or court clerk. With the founding of Manila as the capital of the Philippines, the foundation of the Spanish colonial empire in Asia had been laid. Expeditions to the Other Parts of Luzon ======================================= With Sulayman defeated and Sulayman's uncle, **Lakan Dula**, cooperating with the Spaniards, Legazpi thought of sending expeditions to other parts of Luzon. He sent his grandson to the towns of the south of Manila, while he sent Goiti to explore Central Luzon, as far as Pangasinan. Salcedo conquered Taytay, Cainta, and other towns of what is now Rizal Province. Then in 1572, he went to northern Luzon and defeated the Filipinos in Zambales, Pangasinan, and the Ilocos region. In what is now Vigan, Salcedo founded the town of Villa Fernandina in honor of Prince Fernando, the first-born son of King Philip II. From the Ilocos, Salcedo proceeded to the northeastern coast of Luzon, marched along the Pacific coast of what is now Quezon Province, sailed to Polillo Island, back to the shore of Luzon, and from there returned to Manila over trails, hills, and mountains. Tragedy greeted him in Manila, for he was informed that his grandfather, Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, had died on August 20, 1572. **CHAPTER 5** THE PHILIPPINES UNDER SPANISH RULE (1600'S -- 1800'S) ===================================================== Unlike the country's early contact with its Asian neighbors, which was limited to trade and commerce, the encounter with the West, particularly with Spain, led to direct rule or colonization. What did it mean to be a colony, specifically, a crown ''colony'' in those times? Spain governed the Philippines through the Union of Church and State, introducing in the process new beliefs, institutions, and practices in the political, economic, and religious aspects of people's lives. The results, though effective and positive for Spain, caused hardships for the majority of the inhabitants, except for the few members of the maharlika class. The Maharlika, who later emerged as the new class called principalia, benefitted under the regime and was integrated into the new colonial order for good or ill as shown in the succeeding events. REASON FOR SPANISH COLONIZATION =============================== When King Charles I decided to send an expedition to the Moluccas, his purpose was primarily commercial. Spices commanded high prices during that time, so trade in spices was very profitable. Thus, King Charles was persuaded to send Magellan expedition to Asia to search for the Spice Islands. Later, when Legazpi succeeded in founding Spanish settlements and in laying the foundations of Spanish colonization of the Philippines, the Spanish claim to the archipelago was sealed based on two reasons. First, since the ''discovery'' of the Philippines was made under the auspices of Spain, the Philippines, therefore was rightfully owned by Spain. Second, since Spain, being an actual possession of the Philippines, it had the right to colonize it. In other words, Spain claimed the Philippines by right of ''discovery'' and by right of actual occupation or conquest. As such, the Philippines were a possession or property of the King of Spain and, therefore, a crown colony. POLITICAL CHANGES ================= As a crown colony, the Philippines was administered by the Council of the Indies. Even so, the Spanish officials in the Philippines were a