Anatomy Reviewer PDF - Medical Terminology & Body Structure

Okay, here's the conversion of the image into a structured markdown format. ### S. 1 BASIC DEFINITIONS ANATOMY is the study of the structure and form of an organism; human anatomy deals with the structure and form of the various parts of the human body (anatomy - ana tome to cut apart). The term...

Okay, here's the conversion of the image into a structured markdown format. ### S. 1 BASIC DEFINITIONS ANATOMY is the study of the structure and form of an organism; human anatomy deals with the structure and form of the various parts of the human body (anatomy - ana tome to cut apart). The term **structure**, in the sense in which it is used here, would include a study of such things as: - the composition or materials composing a part; - the manner in which these are put together; - whether the unit is hollow with coverings, or is solid; - the parts or units making up the whole; - the number of such units; - the size, shape, and position in the body. The term "structure" is sometimes used with reference to any unit or part of the body not generally considered to be an organ, such as a cell, gland, hair, nerve, part of an organ, etc., hence the heading "Organs and other structures of " GROSS OR MACROSCOPIC ANATOMY is the study of any part of the body as seen with the naked eye. This study is frequently undertaken in an anatomy laboratory upon a corpse. (Makros = large + skopeo = to see). HISTOLOGY OR MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY is the study of the structure of minute parts such as cells or tissues that are not visible as separate entities to the naked eye. A lens, a light microscope, or an electron microscope is therefore used to magnify them. (Mikros = small + skopeo = to see). EMBRYOLOGY OR DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY is the study of the structural changes that take place in the fertilized ovum up to the time of birth. SURFACE OR REGIONAL OR TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY (for radiographers) would be a study of what part of the surface of the body corresponds to the various organs and structures within the body. It would also include a study of what structures are responsible for the prominences and depressions visible or palpable (able to be felt) through the skin. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY is the study of the similarities and differences in structure of the various parts of the body, among different species of living things. Often man is compared to some species of animal. PHYSIOLOGY is the study of the function or behavior of the organs or other structures of the body. In the Handbook it will be limited to the normal functions of the normal structures. PATHOLOGY is the study of disease, its causes and its effects upon the body. In this presentation of anatomy emphasis has been placed upon the gross and surface anatomy, with a brief introduction to embryology, and of microscopic anatomy only when considered essential. ### S. 2 THE NOMINA ANATOMICA The names of anatomical structures described in the Handbook are based upon those listed in the NOMINA ANATOMICA. This is a list of the names of the parts of the body compiled by the International Anatomical Nomenclature Committee, and published in booklet form. The object was to produce a list of anatomical names that would be acceptable internationally to replace the various names employed. The fourth edition of the booklet was published in 1977, and includes sections on Histology and also on Embryology. In this Handbook of Anatomy Nomina Anatomica is listed as (NA). In the booklet all names are in the Latin form, in order to make them universally acceptable. Eponyms, proper names used as names for anatomical structures, have been replaced by descriptive names, e.g., Parotid duct replaces Stensen's duct, glomerular capsule replaces Bowman's capsule. Diphthongs, two vowels occurring together and pronounced as a single sound such as ae, oe, etc., have been eliminated. Cecum replaces caecum, fetus replaces foetus, hemorrhage replaces haemorrhage, etc. Hyphens between vowels coming together in the middle of words, such as a prefix and its stem have been dropped, e.g. infra-orbital becomes infraorbital, intra-uterine becomes intrauterine. Hyphens in compound words have also been discon- tinued, e.g. postero-anterior becomes posteroanterior. Alternate names have been retained in some instances, e.g. calcaneus and os calcis; visceral pleura and pulmonary pleura. In some instances where two or more names were employed one of them has been selected, e.g. the scaphoid bone of the wrist (not navicular). In other instances the meaning of a term has been restricted, e.g. extremity now refers to the end of some long structure, not to the limb. Undoubtedly older medical personnel will resist these changes, so the original terms will continue to be used by some people. ### S. 3 THE ORGIN OF ANATOMICAL NAMES The names of anatomical structures have been derived from Greek (G), Latin (L), AngloSaxon (AS) and from some other languages: From Greek - kephale, cephale = the head; kondylos, condyle knuckle; karpos, carpus = wrist From Latin - scapula = shoulder blade femur = thigh bone clavicula, clavicle = collar bone Anglo Saxon - sceaft = shaft heorte = heart hype = hip lungen = lung Sometimes derivatives from both Greek and Latin have been used in reference to a single structure, hence renal from ren (L), and nephritic from nephros (G), both refer to the kidney; cor (L) and cardiac from Kardia (G) the heart. Ancient anatomists frequently recognized some similarity between an anatomical structure and some common object. They named the structure after the thing it resembled, e.g. clavicula = clavicle, the collar bone, from its resemblance to an old fashioned key; pelvis from its likeness to a basin; pisiform - shaped like a pea; cuneiform - wedge shaped; arachnoid - spiderlike; deltoid - like the Greek letter delta triangular. ### S. 4 ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY IN THE HANDBOOK Older medical personnel doctors, technicians, etc., have learned and used older names. It has been necessary therefore to list these along with the names recognized in The image shows three diagrams of a human in anatomical position described as follows. **F. 1-1 THE ANATOMICAL POSTION** - frontal view A human figure standing with their face forward, arms at their sides with hands facing forward, and feet together. **F. 1-2 THE ANATOMICAL POSTION** -lateral (side) view A side view of a human with the same conditions as before. **F. 1-3 THE MEDIAN LINE** -frontal view A frontal view of a human with a median line drawn sagittally through the center of the body. This is the start of the definition of the median line and the position of the human, as described previously. **F. 1-4 MODIFIED ANATOMICAL POSTION** -lying on back - supine Lying on the back with face and palms up. **F. 1-5 MODIFIED ANATOMICAL POSTION** -lying face down - prone Lying face down with face and palms down. the (NA). Students must become familiar with each name listed since any of them may be used on requisitions to the department. Whenever two or more names are commonly used for any structure the (NA) and older names are listed. If an eponym is frequently used it has been listed along with the descriptive anatomical name (NA). Very occasional- ly some name other than the (NA) term has been listed, e.g. proximal and distal tibiofibular joints. While Latin has been used in the Nomina Anatomica for all terms modern texts in anatomy have not adhered to this principle. Because modern students do not have a knowledge of Latin or Greek, there is an increasing tendency to use English terms based upon AngloSaxon names or upon interpretations of the Latin or Greek. The result is that in most anatomical texts there is a conglomeration of terms. Many Latin names for structures have been retained unchanged in modern tests, e.g. humerus, ulna, radius, femur, tibia, fibula, etc. In other instances the Latin has been translated into English, e.g. clavicle from clavicula; notch from incisura; head from caput, etc. In some cases the AngloSaxon name has been utilized, e.g. elbow, not cubitus; kidney, not ren; liver, not hepar; lung, not pulmo; heart, not cor or cardia. Frequently, while the Latin name itself has not been used, an Anglicized derivative (especially an adjective) has been accepted; hence hepatic from hepar (liver); gastric from gaster (stomach); enteric from enteron (intestine); pulmonary from pulmo (lung); and cephalic for head. ### S. 5 PLURAL FORMS AND ADJECTIVES In English most plurals are formed by adding "s" or "es" to the singular form. There are also some irregular forms such as oxoxen; knife knives. In the Latin names that have been retained, the plural form varies with the ending of the singular form:- 1. Words ending in "a" change the "a" to "ae", e.g. ulna = ulnae; fibula fibulae; tibia = tibiae. 2. Some names ending in "us" change the "us" to "i", e.g. radius = radii; humerus = humeri; nucleus = nuclei. Others have the same plural form as the singular e.g. manus = manus; fetus = fetus, etc. 3. Terms ending in "um" change the "um" to "a", e.g. ilium ilia; ischium ischia; ovum = ova. 4. Some terms appear to be different; phalanx = phalanges; meninx = meninges; spermatozoon = spermatozoa. There is a modern tendency to discard the Latin plural form and substitute an English ending; ulna = ulnas; tibia = tibias; fibula = fibulas. Some names, such as humerus, radius, etc., appear awkward if "s" or "es" is added. Adjectives are frequently Anglicized forms of the Latin names, e.g. ulna = ulnar; radius = radial; axilla = axillary, etc. Other adjectives, as stated above, are derived from rarely used Latin or Greek nouns, such as pulmonary from pulmo; pneumonic from pneumon; renal from ren; cardiac from kardia, etc. ### S. 6 SPELLING The student should refer to S. 2 under Nomina Anatomica for recently adopted spellings for diphthongs such as fetus, hemorrhage, and anemia. Hyphens as noted have been eliminated, e.g. infraorbital, intrauterine, and in compound terms, e.g. superoinferior, occipitomental, etc. Calix has been suggested instead of calyx, and anulus instead of annulus. Possibly some of these changes may not prove to be acceptable, and the older ones may be retained. Students must therefore learn both. ### S. 7 (1) GENERAL ANATOMICAL TERMS F. 1-1,2,4,5. 1. THE ANATOMICAL POSITION; the subject stands upright, with the limbs extended, face to the front, palms of the hands facing the front, and the feet together. is awkard one. In descriptions of the position of a part of the body it is assumed that the body is in this position, In the supine position, the subject lies on the back, the face and palms are directed upwards: the other conditions would be as described above. In the prone position, or face down position, the face and palms would be directed downwards. Often radiography is done in the supine or prone positions and the conditions listed must be met whenever practical. 2. THE MEDIAN LINE OF THE BODY; F.1-3, a line drawn vertically through the center of the forehead, nose, chin, neck, chest, abdomen, and between the legs. The body would be divided into right and left halves. See also the median plane below. Sometimes an anterior and posterior median line are described. ### S. 7 (2) PARTS OF ORGANS & OTHER STRUCTURES **Head**; caput (L), the expanded end of a part of the body, e.g. head of pancreas, head of radius, etc. **Little Head**; capitulum (L) a small head (from caput = head ulum little) e.g. capitulum of humerus, since it already has one head. **Neck**; cervix or collum (L), the constricted part of a structure adjacent to the head of it, e.g. neck of radius; neck (cervix) of the uterus. **Body**; corpus (L), the principal part of a structure or the shaft of a long bone; body of pancreas; body of a vertebra; radius, etc; corpse = body. **Shaft**; sceaft (AS), the principal part or body of a lor bone, a rodlike part, e.g. shaft of radius. The images shows three diagrams : **F. 1-6 PARTS OF THE LUNGS - frontal view** - A diagram of the lungs with labels referencing the apex, trachea, right superior lobe, fissures, right middle lobe, right lobe lower, and base. **F. 1-7 PARTS OF THE PANCREAS** - A diagram shows the head, body, and tail. **F. 1-8. PARTS OF A LONG BONE - FEMUR** Image: A diagram of the frontal view of a long bone labeled as follows - Upper extremity : Head and Neck - Shaft or Body - Lower extremity: Trochanters, epicondyles, condyles ## Anatomical terms **Tail;** cauda(L), the tapered end of a structure, the tail of the pancreas, etc. **Lobe;** lobus(L), a subdivision of an organ or structure; e.g. a lobe of the lung, liver, etc. **Lobule;** lobulus(L), a subdivision of a lobe (lobe + ulus = little), e.g. lobule of lung, liver, etc. **Segment;** segmentum (L), a unit of structure, separated from other segments, with its own blood supply etc. e.g. segment of a lobe of a lung, with its own bronchus, a branch of a lobar bronchus, and its own blood vessels. **Extremity;** extremitas (L), the end of a long structure, e.g. extremity of a kidney, of a bone, etc. In (NA) not used referring to a limb of the body. **Apex;** the pointed end of a structu e.g. of lung. Base; the broad flattened end of a structure, often its lower end, e.g. base of the lung ### S. 7 (3) OPENINGS INTO OR WITHIN ORGANS **Aperture** - a hole or opening. **Foramen** - a hole or opening, pl. = foramina. **Hiatus** - an opening or gap; esophageal hiatus. **Orifice** - an opening; mitral orifice of heart. **Os** - an opening or mouth; oral hygiene, pl, ossa. **Ostium** - an opening; cardiac ostium of stomach, pl. ostia. **Lumen** -a window or opening; usually refers to the cavity of a hollow organ, stomach, artery, etc. **Porus** -an opening, pore, foramen, e.g. external acoustic (auditory) meatus. ## Anatomical terms ### S. 7 (4) DEPRESSIONS OF ANATOMICAL STRUCTURES **Fissure**; fissura, a narrow slit, cleft or groove; e.g. fissures of the lung, liver, brain. **Fossa**; (L), a depression or hollow below the normal surface of a structure, a trench, ditch, e.g. putuitary fossa, cranial fossa. (pl. fossae) **Hilus**; hilum; an indentation or depression on the surface of an organ, where vessels ente or leave the orga e.g., hilum of lung, kidney, lymph node (pl. hila). **Sulcus**; (L) a groove or furrow, broader than a fissure sometimes has a tendon or artery, etc., running along it e.g. intertubercular (bicipital) groove of humerus, central sulcus of cerebrum, pl. sulci. **Sinus**; three meanings:- - a cavity within an organ, bone, etc., the paranasal sinuses, sinus of kidney (cavity within it) - a channel for blood, etc; e.g. venous sinuseswithin the cranium. - a canal or passage from one organ to another, or to theoutside by which pus etc., escapes. ### S. 7 (5) ADDITIONAL DESCRIPTIVE TERMS **Incisura**; (L) a notch or cleft, e.g. incisura angularis or angular notch of stomach, pl. incisurae. **Meatus**; (L) a canal or tubelike passage, e.g the external acoustic (auditory) meatus of the ear. **Ramus**; (L) a branch or a division of a vessel, nerve or bone; e.g. ramus of the mandible, anterior ramus of a spinal nerve, etc. pl. rami. **Septum**; (L) a partition separating two cavities, e.g. nasal septum, interatrial septum of heart. Note: students must realize that the terms defined in the preceding sections are used in connection with many organs in addition to bones. For this reason they have been transferred to this general section. See additional terms, S. 47, bones. ### S. 8 TERMS RELATING TO POSITION AND LOCATION **Medial or mesial**; that part of any structure or organ that lies nearest to the median line of the body; medial malleolus of the tibia. Note: middle has a different meaning, and refers to a structure lying between two other structures, such as the middle lobe of the right lung. **Lateral**; that part of an organ or structure that lies farthest away from the median line of the body e.g. lateral malleolus of fibula. **Anterior**; towards the front or in the front part of the body, an organ or other structure, e.g., the lower anterior teeth. **Posterior**; towards the back, or in the back part of the body or a part of it, e.g. lower posterior teeth. **Ventral**; in human anatomy refers to the frontor anterior part the same as anterior above. **Dorsal**; in human anatomy refers to the back or the posterior part, e.g. dorsal surface of the forearm. - The document shows a a diagrams with descriptions for F. 1-9, F. 1-10 and F. 1-11. - Each diagram is that of an anatomical representation of a body with labels. - **F. 1-9 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMICAL TERMS** - frontal view - shows the anterior and lateral surfaces of the head, neck, chest, upper limb, abdomen, thigh, knee, and leg. Including palmar surface of hand, and dorsal surface of foot. Proximal and distal ends of arm are shown. - **F. 1-10 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMICAL TERMS** -lateral view - shows the posterior surface of head, and chest, and lateral surface of arm, The locations are called out around a human body. - **F. 1-11 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMICAL TERMS** -finger- shows distal end, middle phalanx and proximal phalanax **Palmar*; refers to the front or palm of the hand. **Plantar*; refers to the sole of the foot. **Volar*; either the palm of the hand, or sole of foot. **Dorsal*; REFERRING TO HAND = the back of the hand. **Dorsal*; REFERRING TO FOOT = its upper surface. **Superior*; refers to the upper part, or that part towards the head end, assuming the body to be in the anatomical position, e.g. superior lobe of a lung. **Inferior**; refers to the lower part, or that part away from the head end, e.g. inferior lobe of a lung. **Cephalic**; an adjective from Kephale (G) head; refers to the head or head end of the body or an organ. **Caudal**; an adjective from cauda = tail; refers to the tail or tail end of the body, or of an organ; **Cranial*; frequently used instead of cephalic. **Cephalad*; towards the head; ad = towards; Caudad = towards the tail end. **Proximal*; that part of a structure closest to its source or origin, its attached end e.g. proximal end of humerus. **Distal**; terminal; that part farthest away from the source or origin or point of attachment, e.g. the distal end of the humerus. **Supine**; the position assumed when lying upon the back with the face up, or if referring to the hands, with the palms up. Note - remember S & S =lying upon the sacrum, i.e. supine. **Prone*; lying face down, or if referring to the hands, with the palms directed downwards. Note: P & P = lying upon the pubis prone. **Longitudinal*; lengthwise, ie. along the long axis or length of a structure. **Transverse**; crossways, orat right angles to the long axis or length of a structure, e.g. a cross section. **Vertical**; perpendicular or at right angles to the horizon, assuming that the subject is standing up. **Horizontal*; parallel to the horizon, subject upright **Central*; the inner part, farthest from the surface **Peripheral*; on or near the surface, outer part **Superficial**; on or near the surface, e.g. superficial veins of the forearm **Deep*; (L profundus) far from the surface, e.g. deep veins of the forearm **Major*; the larger or greater of two **Minor**; the smaller or lesser of two **Internal*; on the inside of the body, or a part of **External**;on the outside, the outer, e.g. external acoustic meatus of the ear. **Intrinsic*; part of an organ itself. **Extrinsic**; originating outside an organ. **Visceral**; refers to some organ; from viscus = an organ; visceral pleura, visceral pericardium. **Parietal*; refers to a wall, relating to the wall of a structure; from paries (G) wall, e.g. parietal pleura. parietal pericardium. **Note**: lateral is frequently used as referring to the side of the body or a part of it Latus (L) side; bilateral refers to both sides, e.g. the bones of the upper limbs are bilaterally similar.. ### S. 9 ANATOMICAL PLANES AND SECTIONS F.1-12, 13 A PLANE: from planus (L) = flat; a real or imaginary flat surface. This might be made by taking a saw, cutting through the body or a part of it, then turning the part so as to view its cut flat surface. The cut is usually lengthwise or transverse. (A plane is a carpenter's tool used to make wood flat and smooth). 1. A **longitudinal plane** is a flat surface made by cutting lengthwise or along the long axis of the body or a part of it, then turning this so that the cut surface is visible. The cut could be made from side to side, or from front to back, and with the subject standing upright or lying down, or in any other position. 2. A **transverse plane** is a flat surface made by cutting through the body or part of it crossways, or at right angles to the long axis, then turning this so that the flat surface is visible. Inthis case the cut from front to back, or from side to side would have the same result. The subject might be standing or lying down. 3. A **vertical plane** is a longitudinal plane made with the subject upright, and the cut made perpendicular to the horizon, either from front to back or from side to side. 4. A **horizontal plane** is a transverse plane made with the subject upright, and the cut made parallel to the horizon. Planes made in the longitudinal or transverse directions at specific locations have acquired specific names denoting their position in the body. Most planes are made in the longitudinal or transverse directions The longitudnal planes might be made by cutting from front to back or from side to side. Some of these planes are defined below. 1. A **midsagittal or median plane** is across the body from front to back, along the median line of the body, and the sagittal suture of the skull.This suture is a joint that passes from front to back on the top (vertex) of the skull along the median line hence sagittal. 2. A **sagittal plane** is a longitudinal plane made by cutting from front to back to one or the other side of the sagittal suture, and parallel to the midsagittal plane 3. A **coronal plane**, or **frontal plane**, is a longitudinal plane made by cutting lengthwise and from side to side through the head and body or part of it, along the coronal suture, or parallel to it. The Coronal suture is a a joint join that extends across the skull from side to side behind the forehead. 4. A **subcostal plane** is a tranverse plane made by cutting across the upper abdomen at right angles to the long axis of the body, and opposite the 10th costal cartilages, the lowest limit of the thoracic cage. 5. A **transpyloric plane** is a transverse plane made by cutting across the body from one side to the other at the level of the 9th costal cartilages or half way between the upper end of the sternum and the symphysis (the joint between the anterior ends of the two pubic bones). This should cut across the pyloric part of the stomach, hence the name. A **SECTION** is a slice made by making two parallel cuts close to a plane, frequently one of those defined above, and similar to a slice of bread or beefsteak. The section is named according to the plane through which it passes - longitudinal, or transverse: - longitudinal section - transverse section - Diagram (Figure F. 1-12) of **CUTS FOR LONGITUDINAL PLANES** showing cuts for median line and midsagittal plane, cuts for sagittal plane, and cuts for coronal or frontal planes. - Diagram (Figure F. 1-13) of **CUTS FOR TRANSVERSE PLANES** showing examples of cuts for transverse planes. ### S. 10 PREFIXES - AN ALPHALBETICAL LIST A prefix is one or more syllables placed before a name to modify, alter, or limit its meaning. The adjective clavicular is formed from clavicula, (collar bone), and from it are formed supraclavicular, above the clavicle; infraclavicular, below the clavicle, etc. From sternal, the adjective of sternum (breast bone) are formed retroster- nal, behind the sternum; substernal, below the sternum, etc. Many anatomical terms contain prefixes and a large number of medical terms also have prefixes. In the list catalogued below the number in the brackets refers to the number in Section 11 in which the prefixes are grouped and defined with examples. List of prefixes: * a, ab = away from (1) * a, ad = to, towards (5) * a, an = without (2) * ambi = both sides, or around (6) * amphi = both sides, or around (7) * ana = up, towards, apart (8) * ante = before, in front of (9) * anti = against, opposed to (12) * auto = self (16) * bi, bis = two, twice, double (14) * circum = around (17) * contra = against, opposed to (13) * de - = away, take away (19) * di, dis = two, twice, double (15) * dia - = through, across (20) * dys - = difficult, bad (23) * ecto = outer, outside (24) * en = in, inside, within (27) * endo = in, inside, within (28) * ento = in, inside, within (29) * epi - = upon, on, over (32) * e, ex = out of, outside (25) * extra = outside, beyond (26) * hemi = half (33) * homo = the same (15) * hydro = water (36) * hyper = above, over (37) * hypo = below, under (40) * in = not (3) * in, intra = in, inside, witin (30&31) * infra = below, under (41) * inter = between or among (43) * leuko, leuco = white (44) * macro = large (45) * mal- = bad, faulty, poor (47) * meta = beyond, after(48) * micro = small (46) * ortho = straight (50) * pan - = all (51) * para= beside (52) * per - = through, across (21) * peri= around (21) * poly= much, many (53) * Post= after (54) * pre= before, in front of (10) * pro - = before, in front of (11) * pseudo = false (55) * re = again, back (56) * retro= behind, backwards(57) * semi =half (34) * sub=below, under (42) * super=above, over (38) * supra=above, over (39) * sym=together,with (60) * syn=together,with (61) * telo-end, fulfillment (58) * trans= across, through(22) * ultra-beyond, after(49) * un=not (4) See also in * uni= one, single, one form(59) **S. 11 PREFIXES GROUPED DEFINED, ILLUSTRATED** Prefixes with similar meanings are grouped together, and nonmedical examples are given as the students may not have acquired a medical vocabulary 1. a, ab away from; abnormal, away from, ie not normal abduct, away from the midline + duco 2. a, an not, or without; anonymous, nameless, without a name; atheist, without a God, (Theos = God), anhydrous without wateranemia without. 3. in- not, or without; insoluble, not soluble, indestructible, cannot be destroyed 4. un- not, unbalanced, not balanced, unfair, not fair 5. ad- to, towards andambi, ambidextrous - around, 6. amph both sides around 7. ana- 8. anie- * List for reference **S. 12 SUFFIXES GROUPED, DEFINED, & ILLUSTRATED** A suffix is one of more syllables added to the end of a word to modify, alter, or limit its meaning. Some anatomical terms have suffixes. ### List 1. Algia 2. cele 3. centesis 4. ectomy 5. otomy 6. ostomy 7. graph 8. grammar 9. graphy 10. iasis 11. osis 12. less 13. itis 14. oma 15. lith 16. pathy - 17. ptosis 18. oid or oides 19. form 20. logia 21. ology 22. ulus 23. olus 24. culus 25. uria = anatomical tissue or epithelial = anatomical tissue = anatomical terms from anatomy ### S. 13 ANATOMICAL TERMS FROM CHAPTER 1 * anatomy * structure * macroscopic anatomy * gross anatomy * histology or microscopic anatomy **embryology**, or developmental anatomy - surface, (regional or topographic anatomy - comparative anatomy - physiology - pathology - anatomical position - median line, plane Nomina Anatomica (NA) - head or caput - little head, capitulum - neck, cervex, collum - body or corpus - tail or cauda - lobe or lobus - lobule or lobulus - segment or segmentum - extremity or extremitas - apex, apices - base (see under bones, prominences, etc. orifice or hiatus orifice or Aperture foramen or foramina **Terms describing location, etc.** -medial, mesial - lateral - anterior - posterior - dorsal - palmar - plantar - head of bone or cartilage or muscle :cephalic - tail bone :caudal - front of spinal column:cephalad - major/greater or dorsal surface:caudad - proximal - ventral - supine - longitundinal - transverse The itemized terminology list from images anatomy macroscopic or gross tissue type in cells osteum lumen vertbral column or sinus vertebra the spinal chord transversity through it the bone structure 16 17 18 19