Ara 102 Al-Nahda: Modern Arab Awakening PDF

ARA 102 AL-NAHḌA: MODERN ARAB AWAKENING Topic (5) Outline Introduction The French Invasion of Egypt The Nahḍa precursors I The Nahḍa precursors II The Islamic reformists Social and political reform and Arab nationalism Modern Arabic literature – Poetry – Fiction and drama...

ARA 102 AL-NAHḌA: MODERN ARAB AWAKENING Topic (5) Outline Introduction The French Invasion of Egypt The Nahḍa precursors I The Nahḍa precursors II The Islamic reformists Social and political reform and Arab nationalism Modern Arabic literature – Poetry – Fiction and drama – The novel and short story Introducing terminology al-inḥiṭāṭ al-nahḍa (the Age of (rebirth / Decline) renaissance)  Introduction 1 The period from the 13th to the 18th centuries witnessed many developments and achievements in the Arabic-Islamic intellectual landscape. Q1: Why the term al-inḥiṭāṭ (the Age of Decline)? 1. It is often referred to as al-inḥiṭāṭ (the Age of Decline) by many Arabic literary historians, because the achievements recorded during the period are comparatively much less ‘significant’ than those recorded during the preceding Abbasid era. 2. There is an argument that those who promoted the term “Inhitaat” were “Arab nationalist” historians and critics, who viewed that period mainly from the perspective of the “domination of the Arabs by non-Arabs, the Mamluks or the Turks.” Introduction 2 However.. many politico-religious groups - e.g., the Sufi Brotherhoods in Asia and Africa and the Wahhabi Movement in Arabia, all played significant roles in keeping the Arabic intellectual scene alive during the so-called inḥiṭāṭ age.  Introduction 3 Q2: why the term al-Nahda (renaissance)? 1. In modern Arab cultural history, the term al-nahḍa refers to both the movement for and the period of the revival of the general worldview of the Arabs as well as the radical change in the trends of socio-cultural activities in their homeland in the 19th and 20th centuries. 2. We cannot translate it as “renaissance” in the same sense as the more popular ‘European renaissance’ (14th-17th century). Introduction 4 Q3: What started al-nahḍa? v The largely indisputable and wide-ranging event that propelled the processes of the modernization of the wider Arab world was the Napoleon Bonaparte-led French occupation of Egypt between 1798 and 1801. The French Invasion Why was France interested in occupying Egypt? What happened to Egypt during the French colonisation? Overall, what are the advantages / disadvantages of the French campaign in Egypt? Lets watch: (2:09 – 11:16) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IiW_KQwMvlQ  The French Invasion 1 Q4: Why was France interested in occupying Egypt? One scholar writes: “Having an exciting and fascinating past and profitable location beside the Mediterranean coast, Egypt was the dream of France, [which thought] that Egypt might be used as a tool to threaten the interests of the British trade and to cut the overland route in order that Britain could not reach India. The French also thought that conquering Egypt would lead to the control of Syria and Jerusalem as well.” John Ray, The Rosetta Stone and the Rebirth of Ancient Egypt (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 25.  The French Invasion 2 Q5: What happened to Egypt during the French colonisation? Ø One of the most resourceful sources that historians of the French occupation of Egypt have always relied upon is Al-Jabarti’s History of Egypt. He chronicled the coming of the French to Egypt, their acceptability by the Egyptians, and their legacies and achievements during their short stay in the country. Ø The French occupation saw developments that radically altered the cultural and educational development of Egypt. Ø Due to the French overhaul of the Egyptian cultural landscape, Egypt became the center of the Nahḍa; this was also helped, in part, to its strategic geographical location as well as its relatively more stable political environment during the 19th century. The French Invasion 3 Ø The French army brought 150 scientists in the fields of chemistry, astronomy, mathematics, and medicine to philosophy, poetry, theater, and music, for the purpose of spreading their political propaganda more effectively and documenting their research findings. Ø The French introduced journalism to Egypt for the purpose of spreading their political propaganda more effectively and documenting their research findings on the historical, anthropological, and archeological treasures. Ø They founded a scientific institute in Cairo and published scientific and cultural journals whose circulation was restricted to the circles of the invading forces and other European settlers as well as some Egyptian officials. Ø The also set up a series of provincial councils, thus introducing the Egyptians to Western representative institutions for the first time. The nahḍa precursors Stage (1): The rulers: Muḥammad ʿAlī and Khedive Ismāʿīl Stage (2): The intellectuals: al-Ṭahṭāwī  The nahḍa precursors: Stage (1) Muḥammad ʿAlī – Both Muḥammad ʿAlī and his grandson Khedive Ismāʿīl were extremely instrumental to the nahḍa in Egypt. – Muḥammad ʿAlī ruled Egypt for 43 years. – He was an army general of Albanian descent in the Ottoman army sent to Egypt to help drive out the French and restore law and order. – He is generally considered the architect of modern Arab and Islamic cultural revival in Egypt. – He re-directed the course of governance in Egypt from a pan-Turkish to a pan-Arab approach. – Politically, although he fought the French, under his rule they were still very influential in Egypt.  The nahḍa precursors: Stage (1) Muḥammad ʿAlī achievements – His achievements are predominantly intercultural. – Education à he introduced the French system of education through his series of educational mission (al-baʿtha) by which students— mainly from among the graduates of al-Azhar who were educated in the traditional Arab-Islamic methods—were selected and sent to study in Italy and in France. – Education à he started the importation of European teachers, mainly French and Italians, into Egypt for the purpose of teaching and training the Egyptian youths in the schools and higher institutions of learning he had just established across Egypt. – Translation à he commissioned the translation of many Western texts into Arabic which were then studied at the newly established schools and institutions.  The nahḍa precursors: Stage (1) Muḥammad ʿAlī achievements – Press à he is credited with the introduction to the Arab world of a full-scale printing press that published a wide range of materials. That was the Būlāq Press, which helped launch a masses-oriented Egyptian journalism. This led to the appearance of daily newspapers, like the official Egyptian government gazette, al- Waqāʾiʿ al-Maṣriyya, which first appeared in 1828, and al-Ahrām, which was founded in 1875 and now is one of the oldest surviving Arabic daily newspapers. Journalism in Syria and Lebanon then followed.  The nahḍa precursors: Stage (1) Khedive Ismāʿīl – He ruled Egypt for 16 years. – He took the trend of modernization of Egypt further. – His goal was to make Egypt look like—if not part of—Europe. “My country is no longer in Africa; we are now part of Europe. It is therefore natural for us to abandon our former ways and to adopt a new system adapted to our social conditions”. – He invested heavily in industrial and economic development, urbanisation, and the expansion of the country's boundaries in Africa.  The nahḍa precursors: Stage (1) Khedive Ismāʿīl achievements – He established many of Egypt’s national institutions that boosted his development plans including, most especially: Dār al-kutub (1870, the National Library) Dār al-awprā (1869, the Cairo Opera House) Dār al-ʿulūm (1872, which is a teacher training college) The first girls’ school (1873) The re-opening of al-Ṭahṭāwī’s Madrasat al-alsun (School of Languages) in 1868. – Many other national dailies and literary journals, specialized schools and institutions were also established during Ismāʿīl’s reign.  The nahḍa precursors: Stage (1) Khedive Ismāʿīl achievements – The Suez Canal (17th Nov. 1869) – Its long-lasting political, economic and social impact is the landmark of his reign. – Let’s watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i9p- a8YJO-o  The nahḍa precursors: Stage (2) Rifaʿa Rafiʿ al-Ṭahṭāwī – He is an Egyptian scholar and one of the greatest intellectual leaders of the Nahḍa. – A graduate of and scholar at al-Azhar, al-Ṭahṭāwī was sent in the first set of the education mission sent by Muḥammad ʿAlī to study in France. He served as the imām (spiritual leader) of the mission. – During his stay in France, he decided to do beyond his clerical roles, as he embarked on self-study and observation of French language, culture, and society. – Upon his return to Egypt, he started working on the processes of disseminating his reform ideas. In his opinion, the Islamic world and Egypt, in particular, had much to learn from Europe, and he believed that any reforms should be applied in compliance with Islamic values. The nahḍa precursors: Stage (2) – Al-Ṭahṭāwī’s open-mindedness, as well as his confidence in the modernization project launched by Muḥammad ʿAlī, was the guiding spirit for many of the other nahḍa intellectual pioneers and the subsequent generations. – Taking France as a role model, he wrote several works to express his ideas about reforming Egypt. – He also translated several French works into Arabic and, as the founder and first director of the School of Languages (Al-Alsun) from 1835 onward, he supervised many translation projects that took place in that school.  The nahḍa precursors: Stage (2) – His most famous book is Takhlīṣ al-ibrīz fī talkhīṣ Bārīz, which provides an unprecedented account of an Egyptian’s impressions of French and European societies and civilizations in comparison with his homeland’s society and civilization. – He wrote about the set-up of the city of Paris, its inhabitants, streets, and houses, and also he discusses the status and position of men and women in that society, emphasizing the special love which the French people have for reading, literature, and the arts. – For example he writes: “It is recognized that the French people are outstanding among the European nations in their great attachment to arts and sciences. They are the greatest in literature and civilization.” – His descriptions of 19th French society and civilization are very accurate. – The book also prominently features some of the author’s translations of literary pieces, especially poems, by French writers. The nahḍa precursors: Stage (2) An example of Islamic modernism!  The Islamic reformists 1 Most prominent figures: The Afghan scholar Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī (1838-1897) The Egyptian scholar Muḥammad ʿAbduh (1849-1905) They were leaders of the Islamic religious reform in the 19th century. Both sought to modernize Islam and interpret its precepts in line with the modern Western discourses and analytical paradigms (unlike the Wahhabis).  The Islamic reformists 2 Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī – He is an Islamic ideologist and reformist who was one of the founders of Islamic Modernism in the 19th century. – He was less interested in minor differences between schools of Islamic jurisprudence, and more interested in organising a united Islamic front against the West. – He called for a return to the original principles and ideals of Islam, and for greater unity among Muslims. He argued that this would allow the Islamic community to regain its former strength against European powers. – He believed that Islam and Shari’a were compatible with rationality and, thus, Muslims could become politically unified while still maintaining their faith based on a religious social morality.  The Islamic reformists 3 Muḥammad ʿAbduh – He wrote several works to instigate intellectual debates about Islamic reform in the modern period. – He co-edited a journal with al-Afghānī called al-ʿUrwat al-wuthqā (The Firmest Bond), which was published between while both of them were in exile in France. – Some of the topics he discussed was a comparative survey of the Christian and Islamic civilizations with regards to the doctrines stipulated in their respective scriptures. – For example, he writes:  The Islamic reformists 4 “Christianity was based on reconciliation and forbearance in all things. It brought with it the removal of retaliation, the rejection of involvement in rule and authority, and the neglect of the world and its vanity. It preached submission to every authority ruling its devotees, ‘rendering to Caesar that which is Caesar’s’, and the avoidance of personal, racial, and even religious quarrels […]. The religion of Islam (on the other hand) is based on the quest for victory, influence, conquest and power; and the rejection of every law conflicting with its own legal code (sharīʿa); on the removal of every authority where the ruler is not committed to carrying out the laws of Islam […].” The Islamic reformists 5 – He explains how modern-day Muslims and Christians are not the embodiments of the teachings of their respective faiths. – He argues that the Christians, from the time of the crusade wars to the present, have become world powers, while the Muslims have become the passive observers and and the victimized other in a world a large part of which they once controlled for centuries. Social and political reform and Arab nationalism Reform Social reform Political reform Qassim Amin struggle against struggle against Women’s rights Muhammad Ali May Ziyada the British dynasty/monarchy Saad Zaghloul Urabi revolution (1870s-1880s) 1952 revolution Watch out for the highlighted names from this slide onwards! Social and political reform and Arab nationalism Social reform: – Women’s rights and freedom. – The subject was debated across the country and in the wider Arab world, as shown in the many poems, plays, and fictional texts produced around that time and afterward. – Qāsim Amīn à wrote two important and famous books on the subject: Taḥrīr al-marʾa (Women’s Liberation) and al-Marʾa al-jadīda (The New Woman). – His reform ideas contained in these books were met with opposition from some conservative Islamic religious groups, but well accepted by most western-educated and progressive Egyptians. Social and political reform and Arab nationalism Social reform: – Many women from across the region—such as May Ziyāda also participated in the women’s rights struggle and the overall nahḍa movement through their writings as well as their social and political activism. See the intriguing story of May Ziada https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t5oOJV1bE4s Social and political reform and Arab nationalism Political reform: – The real event that spurred political and nationalistic activism in the country was the Ahmad Urābī revolution of the 1870s and 1880s in protest against the despotism of the Muḥammad ʿAli dynasty and foreign control. – The struggle against British imperialism began in 1882 and continued when the British deposed Khedive Ismail, dissolved the Parliament and declared Egypt a British protectorate as World War I started in 1914. – Saad Zaghlūl, leader of the biggest political party at the time and former minister, was a leader in the struggle against the British. – Egypt gained independence from Britain in 1922 and the monarchical system of government was restored, in continuation of the Muḥammad ʿAlī dynasty. – In 1952, the revolution led by a group of army officers abolished monarchy and established Egypt as a Republic. It also witnessed the rise of Jamal Abdel Nasser as the leader of Arab Nationalism. His decision to nationalize the Suez Canal in 1956 was a great milestone for Arab nationalism but it triggered the triple attack on Egypt by Britain, France and Israel.  Modern Arabic Literature The wave of change and modernization that characterized the Nahḍa era is very noticeable in Arabic literature from mid-19th century. By the end of the 19th century, the effects of the processes of the westernization of the Egyptian educational system and of the emergent journalism began to be felt and have an obvious effect on the literature published then. That era witnessed the emergence of various trends and developments in Arabic literature which became more diverse because of the renewed Arab contact with European literature in the nineteenth century. How to modernise Arabic Literature? Novel Poetry Drama  Modern Arabic Literature: Poetry Poetry is one of the most famous forms of art among the Arabs at least since the 6th century with pre-Islamic poetry. Poetry continued to strive in Arabo-Islamic culture during the so-called al- inḥiṭāṭ age of the pre-nahḍa era. During the Nahda period, 3 generations of poets changed Arabic poetry in very different ways.  The Revivalist School The Mahjar School The Hadatha School They maintained the traditional It includes mostly Syro- This school includes the form and structure of Arabic Lebanese migrant writers in poetry. post-World Wars the United States, who They sought to revive the classical revolutionized modern Arabic generation of Arab Arabic poetical tradition by poetry. poets who built upon reviving the qaṣīda or at least Famous poets: the achievements of adopting its highly-refined language and balanced metrical Ø Jubrān Khalīl Jubrān, their predecessors. Ø Ilyā Abū Māḍī They adopted in a large structure, i.e. the wazn (metrical patterns) and qāfiya (mono- Ø Mīkhā’īl Nuʿayma. They began to break away majority of their poems rhyme). Famous poets: from the traditional qaṣīda al-shiʿr al-ḥurr (the free Ø Maḥmūd al-Barūdī style of Arabic poetical verse), which deviates Ø Ḥāfiz Ibrāhīm composition. completely from the Ø Aḥmad Shawqī (the Prince With their work, the ground classical qaṣīda style of Poets, many of his poems was prepared for the commemorates special appearance of the new, and structure. events and occasions in westernized forms, structures, Famous poets: Islam’s glorious past from and concepts in Arabic poetry. Ø Nāzik al-Malāʾika the time of the Prophet Muḥammad to the Fall of The remarkable influence of Ø Nizār Qabbanī western literature led to the Ø Maḥmūd Darwīsh Granada in Spain.) adoption of al-shiʿr al- Most of their poems reflect little influence of European civilization manthūr (versified prose), in terms of language, technique which deviates partially from and structure. the classical qaṣīda style and structure. Modern Arabic Literature: Drama Modern Arabic short story, novel, and drama all have developed under the influence of European literature. Writers of the Revivalist School adopted a highly-embellished, refined, and rhymed prose style closer to the classics, while treating modern and contemporary issues in their fictions. The second generation of modern Arab writers sought to modernize or westernize their prose. Among them Lebanese, Syrian and Egyptian writers. Mārūn al-Naqqāsh is known as the first Arab in the modern period to write and stage a play in Arabic. Together with his brother and nephew, he founded a theater group that performed his plays on stage across Lebanese, Syrian, and Egyptian cities. He was greatly influenced by European theater and opera, having visited Italy and studied its language and culture. Modern Arabic Literature: Drama The previously mentioned poet laureate Ahmad Shawqi was also a play writer and he developed the drama genre in Egypt. Most of his plays, which were written in the poetic form, are classified as historical because they treat different epochs in the history of Islam and Egypt. His most famous play “The Death of Cleopatra” (1929) treats the theme of love and duty as seen from the Egyptian/Eastern perspective. He presented Cleopatra as a smart leader and dedicated lover of her country, whose suicide is the final sacrifice she makes for her country. The most famous Arab playwright of the modern period was the Egyptian lawyer-turned-writer Tawfiq al-Ḥakim who authored many classic plays and several novels of everlasting significance and relevance, including the historical-religious play, Ahl al- kahf (1933, The People of the Cave) and the largely sociological novel ʿUsfūr min al-sharq (1938, A Bird from the East). While some of his works represent aspects of Arab and Islam’s historical past, others depict socio-political issues that dominate modern and contemporary Egyptian society. Modern Arabic Literature: Novel The Arabic novel and short story in the 18th-19th centuries developed under the influence of European literature. One neo-classical writer was the Lebanese Jurji Zaydan, who championed the course of the historical novel in Arabic. But Zaydan’s historical novels present “a new, more direct, prose style” which differs from the style employed by most of his contemporaries. The second generation of modern Arab writers sought to modernize or westernize their prose. These include: Muḥammad Ḥusayn Haykal, the author of Zaynab (1913), a romantic and largely realistic fictional narrative that is acclaimed the first Arabic novel by Western standard. Tāhā Ḥusayn, the blind author whose most famous three-part novel, al-Ayyām (1926, The Days) is not just biographical, but richly crafted with an excellent use of modern standard Arabic. Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad, who authored the love and romantic novel Sara (1938) as well as several biographical novels about Islam’s and other Abrahamic religion’s most famous historical personalities.  Modern Arabic Literature: Novel Unlike drama, which did not flourish too much among modern Arab writers, the short story and the novel have developed considerably and matured in the hands of 20th writers such as Egyptian Najīb Maḥfūẓ (right), Yūsuf Idrīs and Yaḥyā Ḥaqqī as well as the Sudanese al-Ṭayyib Ṣāliḥ (left), all of who were among the third, youngest generation of prose writers in the nahḍa era. Maḥfūẓ is the best known Arab novelist outside the Arab world and a Nobel Prize winner. He wrote many novels that focus more inwardly on the lives of the common man, taking the city of Cairo as his case study. His works have received great critical attention in Western academia, and he remains the most translated modern Arab author.  Modern Arabic Literature The prose literature – novels, short stories, and plays – of the wider nahḍa period largely treats contemporary issues in either the conventional (linear narrative) or experimental (fragmented and non- sequential) modes. Types of fiction developed from the historical, biographical, and autobiographical to the philosophical, allegorical, psychological and so on. Modern Arabic fictional and dramatic texts have most commonly explored the theme of the cultural encounter between the East and the West, which always takes the dimension of the struggle between tradition (represented by the East, in this case, the Arab world) and modernity (represented by the West). This theme has always constituted the background of much of the prose writing of the modern era, while others, such as love and marital relationship, politics, religion, and other social issues might feature at the foreground.