Quality of Animal Products PDF

**Quality of Animal Products** Quality Attributes Meat Quality - can be defined as a set of properties that together identify what we appreciate about meat when we purchase it, eat it, or select it for use as a raw material for processing into meat products. Traditionally, the set of properties us...

**Quality of Animal Products** Quality Attributes Meat Quality - can be defined as a set of properties that together identify what we appreciate about meat when we purchase it, eat it, or select it for use as a raw material for processing into meat products. Traditionally, the set of properties used to define the quality of meat intended for consumption as whole meat, rather than meat products, are those associated with our sensory perception; appearance, color, flavor, texture (especially tenderness), juiciness/water-holding, and odor. The other traditional quality factor, normally expressed as freshness or wholesomeness, relates to the perception that the meat is safe to eat, in terms of lack of pathogens, parasites, infections agents, or toxins. Is Fish Can be Classified as Meat? According to the conventional definition, meat is any flesh of a warm-blooded animal, such as beef, pork, lamb, and veal. Under this definition, fish is not considered meat because it is cold-blooded. However, other people define meat as the flesh of any animal, which would include fish. Meat Meat is an animal flesh mammalian species (pigs, cattle, lambs, etc.) that is eaten as food raised and prepared for human consumption, to the exclusion of fish and other seafood, poultry, and other animals. Perception of Meat Quality by Consumer Intrinsic at The Point Of Sale: On cooking: Color Fatness Aroma Shrinkage Drip Nutritional Exudates On eating: Tenderness Juiciness Flavor Meat Storage Stored at 28 to 30°F Frozen meats should be stored at 0°F Ice crystal development due to temperature fluctuations during freezer storage Frozen meat products should be packaged in material, which prevents the evaporation of moisture and entrance of air We can view various attributes of meat quality in a form analogous to Maslow's "triangle of needs" (Maslow, 1943), as depicted. When each level of "need" is satisfied, it becomes less dominant, and the next level up takes on more importance. In some developing countries, the price of meat and its availability or continuity of supply are the most important factors for consumers. Meat Name from Different Animals Wagyu - a Japanese beef cattle breed -- derived from native Asian cattle. \'Wagyu\' refers to all Japanese beef cattle, where \'Wa\' means Japanese and \'gyu\' means cow. Charcuterie - French term that refers to prepared meats, such as sausage, ham, bacon, and pâté primarily from pork items. Red Meat Quality Attributes Meat Quality in Color Myoglobin, a protein, is responsible for the majority of the red color. Myoglobin doesn\'t circulate in the blood but is fixed in the tissue cells and is purplish in color. When it is mixed with oxygen, it becomes oxymyoglobin (blooming) and produces a bright red color. Color is also influenced by the age of the animal, the species, sex, diet, and even the exercise it gets. 90% of meat\'s color is due to myoglobin Active muscles, like dark meat, have 3-5x more myoglobin than white meat. Older animals may contain 5-10x more than young (think pale veal) Color change in raw meat is reversible because myoglobin is DESIGNED to continually shuttle oxygen back and forth through the cell wall. Over time, continued exposure to oxygen leads to the formation of metmyoglobin, which is brown and indicates that the myoglobin has lost its ability to bind oxygen. A smoke ring refers to the pink-colored meat that remains after the meat has been cooked, just between the crust and the interior, brown-colored meat. Iridescence in meats, specifically beef, can be detected in some of the muscle tissues of some animals before and after rigor mortis. Meat contains iron, fat, and other compounds. When light hits a slice of meat, it splits into colors like a rainbow. The most common color is an iridescent green, with the next most common color an iridescent orange red. Limited research has been done on the iridescence in both raw and cooked beef. Once iridescence is present in a muscle, it cannot be removed with any of the processes commonly used for the preparation and cooking of solid muscle meats. Wrapping the meat in airtight packages and storing it away from light will help prevent this situation. Iridescence does not represent the decreased quality or safety of the meat. Meat Quality in Beef Good Characteristics COLOR - Fresh beef should display a bright cherry-red color, which indicates freshness and proper handling. MARBLING - The presence of intramuscular fat (marbling) enhances tenderness and flavor. Well-marbled cuts are generally more desirable as they tend to be juicier and more flavorful TEXTURE - Good quality beef should feel firm and slightly moist but not slimy or overly soft. A proper texture indicates freshness and appropriate handling. ODOR - Fresh beef has a slightly metallic or bloody scent. A lack of unpleasant odors is a sign of good quality; any sour or rancid smells indicate spoilage ODOR - High-quality beef is tender and juicy, contributing to a better eating experience. These attributes are often enhanced by proper aging and marbling. Bad Characteristics DISCOLORATION - Beef that appears brownish or has an abnormal color may suggest spoilage or poor handling. While some color changes can occur naturally, significant browning (metmyoglobin formation) is often viewed negatively by consumers. EXCESSIVE FAT - While some fat is desirable for flavor, excessive visible fat can detract from the quality and lead to a greasy texture, making the meat less appealing SLIMY TEXTURE - If the beef feels slimy or excessively soft, it may indicate decomposition or spoilage, making it unsafe for consumption OFF ODORS - Any strong, unpleasant odors (like sourness) are clear indicators of poor quality or spoilage, suggesting that the meat should not be consumed CONTAMINATION - Presence of foreign materials such as bone fragments or metal can severely compromise the quality and safety of beef, rendering it unfit for consumption. Meat Quality in Carabeef Good Characteristics COLOR - Reddish-Pink Hue: Fresh carabeef typically exhibits a bright reddish-pink color, indicating freshness and quality. MARBLING - Intramuscular Fat: Good quality carabeef should have visible marbling, which refers to the white flecks of intramuscular fat. Adequate marbling enhances flavor, juiciness, and tenderness, making the meat more desirable for consumers NUTRITIONAL VALUE - Carabeef is generally considered a healthier option compared to traditional beef, as it contains lower levels of cholesterol and fat while being rich in protein and essential minerals. FLAVOR & TENDERNESS - When sourced from well-fed younger animals, carabeef can have a rich flavor and desirable tenderness. Studies show that carabeef can have comparable eating qualities to beef when raised under similar conditions. Bad Characteristics TOUGHNESS - A common drawback is that carabeef can be tougher than traditional beef, particularly if sourced from older draft animals. This toughness can detract from the overall eating experience if not prepared correctly. FAT CONTENT - While lower fat content can be beneficial, excessive leanness may lead to dryness if not cooked properly. Some cuts may lack the juiciness that consumers expect from meat products. APPEARANCE - The color of carabeef may sometimes appear darker than standard beef, which can deter some consumers due to aesthetic preferences. Additionally, poor fat cover may affect the overall appearance and perceived quality. OFF ODORS - If carabeef is not fresh or has been improperly handled, it may develop unpleasant odors, which could indicate spoilage. Some consumers may find that carabeef has a more pronounced animalistic smell compared to traditional beef. BEEF VS CARABEEF Pure Beef - Yellow nature in color Carabeef - White Color in Nature specially the Fats ( Bone marrow in beef shank parts). Meat Quality in Pork Good Characteristics COLOR - High-quality pork should have a reddish-pink hue. This color indicates freshness and is preferred by consumers. MARBLING - The presence of intramuscular fat (marbling) is essential for flavor and juiciness. Adequate marbling enhances tenderness and overall eating quality, making the meat more desirable FIRMNESS - Good quality pork should feel firm to the touch, indicating that it has been handled properly. It should not be too soft or squishy, which can be a sign of spoilage ODOR - Fresh pork has a mild, slightly metallic scent. An absence of strong or unpleasant odors indicates good quality; any off-putting smells may suggest spoilage (e.g. Boar Taint). "Boar taint" refers to the undesirable, often intense, fecal, urine-like odor, and/or flavor of pork and has negative impacts on consumer acceptability of pork. It was. This perspiration like odor is associated with the meat of the sexually mature uncastrated male pig or boar. Bad Characteristics DISCOLORATION - Pork that appears pale or excessively dark may indicate spoilage or poor handling practices. EXCESSIVE SOFTNESS - If the pork feels overly soft or has a pasty texture, it may indicate that it is not fresh or has been improperly handled. This texture can lead to reduced consumer acceptance SLIMY TEXTURE - A slimy or viscous surface on the pork is a sign of bacterial growth and spoilage, making it unsafe for consumption OFF ODORS - Strong, unpleasant smells are clear indicators of poor quality or spoilage. Any sour or rancid odor suggests that the meat should not be consumed PORK INFECTED WITH FLUKE - Infected pork, or rice pork, is pork where the larvae of the tapeworm reside in the form of cysts in the pork. Pork contains flukes that pose a risk to humans if the food is not cooked properly. This can cause Swine Flu. Meat Quality in Goat Goat meat is internationally regarded as a lean red meat with favorable nutritional characteristics. Goat meat has a somewhat darker red color, coarser texture, and characteristically different flavor and aroma compared with lamb or mutton. Goat meat and meat products also tend to be less juicy than mutton predominantly due to their reduced fat content. Goat is known to exhibit tough meat and is generally regarded as inferior to other red meat regarding tenderness perception. Look for meat that is brownish-pink with a layer of creamy white fat. Avoid lamb that is grey in color, excessively bloody, or has very yellow greasy fat. Rare lamb breeds or older animals tend to have more deeply colored flesh. Flavor: Some cuts of lamb have a more gamey flavor than others because of their overall fat content. If that flavor isn't to your liking, avoid cuts from the shoulder, shank and leg. This includes shoulder chops, bone-in or boneless leg of lamb, and stew meat. Instead, look to leaner cuts like rib chops, loin chops, and rack of lamb, which have less fat and taste sweeter. Meat Quality in Lamb Lamb bones should be pink in color. The rib bones from the middle of the carcass are good examples of this. Known to the butcher as 'cherry ribs', they are bright pink when the lamb is young. As the animal gets older, the bones lose their pinkness and become whiter. Look for joints that are plump and nicely rounded with an almost dry skin, but not dried out or patchy from over-exposure. Botcha or "double dead" meat is livestock or poultry that have died due to disease, slaughtered, and then sold as fresh meat to consumers. Poultry Meat Quality Attributes APPEARANCE Of all the quality attributes, appearance is the most crucial for the selection of many food items, particularly poultry products. Consumers often make their decision to purchase or reject a product based solely on its appearance. One of the major factors contributing to appearance is color. Color has long been recognized as a primary selection criterion for fresh poultry and meat products, as well as for overall product satisfaction. For poultry meat products, color is important for skin, meat, and bone. Skin color is most critical for the marketing of fresh whole birds or parts. Meat color is most important both for the selection of deboned and skinless raw meat as well as being critical for the final evaluation of many cooked products. A pink or red appearance in cooked poultry meat is usually seen as a sign of undercooking and is highly undesirable. The darkening around the bones of young broiler- fryers (6-8 weeks) happens because their bones have not fully calcified. This allows pigment from the bone marrow to seep through the porous bones, causing the meat to turn dark when cooked. Eating chicken meat that turns dark near the bone during cooking is perfectly safe. What is the usual color of raw poultry? Raw chicken appears pink and fleshy or can range from bluish white to yellow. These variations are normal and are influenced by breed, exercise, age, and diet. For instance, younger poultry may have less fat under the skin, leading to a bluish hue, while yellow skin could be a result of marigolds in the feed. What Factors Affect The Color of Meat & Poultry? The color of meat is primarily due to the presence of myoglobin, a protein fixed in tissue cells. When myoglobin is mixed with oxygen, it forms oxymyoglobin, which gives the meat a bright red/pink color. In deoxygenated poultry meat, myoglobin transitions to deoxymyoglobin, resulting in a dark purplish-red color. Additionally, if myoglobin undergoes oxidation, it can form metmyoglobin, which has a brownish shade. The color of meat is also influenced by the age of the animal, the species, sex, diet, and even the exercise it gets. The meat from older animals will be darker in color because the myoglobin level increases with age. Exercised muscles are always darker in color, which means the same animal can have variations of color in its muscles. Additionally, when meat and poultry are frozen, color changes can occur just like they do in the refrigerator. Fading and darkening, for example, do not affect their safety. Does a change in color indicate spoilage? A change in color alone does not necessarily mean the product is spoiled. Color changes are normal for fresh products. If the meat or poultry will have an off odor, be sticky or tacky to the touch, or it may be slimy. If the meat has developed any of these characteristics, it should not be used. TEXTURE Texture is probably the single most critical quality factor associated with the consumers' ultimate satisfaction with a poultry meat product. The two main factors that contribute to the tenderness of poultry meat are: The first, maturity of the connective tissue involves the chemical Cross-bonding of the collagen in the muscle. Since collagen cross-linking increases with age, meat is generally tougher from older animals. The second factor, the contractile state of the myofibrillar proteins, is primarily a function of the rate and severity of rigor mortis development. What are woody chicken breasts? According to the National Chicken Council, Woody breast is a condition that affects chicken breast meat, causing it to be hard to the touch and often pale in color with poor-quality texture. It is characterized by a tougher or more complex consistency, paler and less tasty appearance, and coarser fibers that feel \" woody. " What causes woody chicken breasts? According to ongoing research, scientists are still investigating the root cause of woody chicken breasts. One theory suggests that the development of the muscle in fast-growing birds may lead to stress, resulting in the degradation of protein and a change in composition, with collagen and fat moving into the muscle. As a result, woody chicken breasts may contain approximately 2% less protein than normal breasts. What can you do with woody chicken breasts? Woody chicken breasts aren\'t completely worthless. Consider tenderizing them using a marinade or brine with yogurt or buttermilk, which has enzymes that make the meat less tough. FLAVOR Flavor is another quality attribute that consumers use to determine the acceptability of poultry meat. The flavor is an integrated complex sensation of odor, taste, mouthfeel, pain, temperature, and even sound. The flavor of poultry meat dealt mainly with the effects of parameters such as diet, sex, age, processing conditions, and storage on the overall flavor sensation of poultry products. Flavor and aroma issues in meat, poultry, and fish can result from various factors, including absorbing unwanted odors and flavors from the surrounding environment. For example, storing fresh chicken in a refrigerator with various veterinary medicines can cause the meat to taste medicinal even after cooking. Additionally, flavors from the animals\' diet, known as feed flavors, can also affect the taste of meat, poultry, and fish products. Research on the flavor of poultry conducted by various studies from the 1950s to the 1960s revealed several interesting findings. While some studies reported that male birds were more strongly flavored than females, others found no significant influence of sex on flavor, juiciness, or tenderness. Age and harmonization were noted to greatly influence the flavor of chicken broth, with the most important difference observed between birds aged 6 and 10 weeks. Additionally, comparisons of flavor between different breeds of chickens from various periods and production conditions revealed that the modern bird had as much flavor as the old-style bird and other studies also found older chickens to be more flavorful. MICROBIAL PROBLEMS The safety of meat, poultry, and fish is a significant concern due to their perishable nature. Producers, slaughterers, and processors are focused on controlling microbial counts and identifying pathogens to ensure safety. Poultry meat products, in face challenges in ensuring microbial safety to increase consumption and production. Bacterial contamination during slaughter and processing can lead to the presence of pathogenic species such as Salmonella and Campylobacter, which are responsible for human gastroenteritis. Additionally, spoilage bacteria can cause economic losses due to defects in color, odor, taste, and texture, impacting the poultry meat production sector. Sources of Contamination Microbiological safety criterion for raw poultry meats in Moroccan For fresh poultry meat, acceptable upper limits are 6.7 log10 cfu/g for aerobic plate counts (APC), 4 log10 cfu/g for fecal coliforms, 3.7 log10 cfu/g for Staph. aureus, and 2.5 log10 cfu/g for C. perfringens. In addition, according to Moroccan regulations, Salmonella and L. monocytogenes should be undetectable in a 25-g poultry meat sample. There are, however, no safety criteria concerning E. coli in the Moroccan standard regulations. The implementation of the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) concept by the meat, poultry, and fish industries shows potential in reducing issues related to microbial contamination. It can be used to identify critical control points that require attention to manage both microbial hazards and spoilage. RESIDUE Residues in food can include pesticides, insecticides, feed additives, antibiotics, and sulfa drugs used in veterinary medicine. Consumers often perceive residues as a serious problem, but the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) has an ongoing monitoring program, as explained by Pullen (1990). While residues are likely less of a risk to consumers than pathogenic bacteria, public concerns could lead to increased emphasis on monitoring residues in meat, poultry, and fish products by FSIS and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) inspectors. NUTRITIONAL VALUE Meat, poultry, and fish are important sources of protein and essential amino acids, especially lysine, which is crucial in meeting dietary needs. They are also major contributors to B-complex vitamins such as thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and pantothenic acid, as well as vitamin B6 and B12. While they are not good sources of certain minerals like calcium, potassium, and magnesium, they do provide significant amounts of phosphorus, iron, zinc, selenium, copper, and cobalt. Fish & Shellfish Quality Attributes Fish are aquatic animals characterized by scales and respiration through water intake via their mouths, and the term also refers to their flesh when consumed as food. In contrast, shellfish are aquatic animals distinguished by the presence of a protective shell. Nutritional Value Fish and shellfish are rich sources of high-quality protein, essential fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals. They contain significant amounts of: Omega-3 Fatty Acids: These are critical for heart health, cognitive function, and reducing inflammation. Vitamins: Fish and shellfish provide important vitamins such as B12, which is vital for nerve function and the production of DNA and red blood cells. Minerals: Nutritional benefits also include essential minerals like iodine, selenium, zinc, and iron, which support thyroid function, immune health, and overall metabolism. Health Benefits Regular consumption of fish and shellfish is associated with a range of health benefits: Cardiovascular Health: The omega-3 fatty acids found in fish can lower triglycerides, reduce blood pressure, and decrease the risk of heart disease. Brain Health: Omega-3 fatty acids are also linked to improved cognitive function, and their intake may reduce the risk of cognitive decline and dementia. Weight Management: Including fish in the diet may promote a feeling of fullness, aiding in weight management. Dietary Recommendations and Sustainability Health organizations generally recommend including fish in the diet a few times a week to reap its benefits while balancing the intake with potential risks, such as exposure to methylmercury, especially in vulnerable groups like pregnant women. Sustainable sourcing is also essential to ensure that fish and shellfish consumption does not negatively impact marine ecosystems. Assurance of Food Safety Quality control is essential for ensuring the safety of fish and shellfish, which are particularly susceptible to microbial contamination. By implementing systems such as HACCP, quality control identifies critical points in processing where food safety hazards can occur. For instance, monitoring temperature and handling practices is crucial to prevent the growth of pathogens. Continuous testing for contaminants and adherence to established safety standards help prevent foodborne illness. Maintenance of Freshness Quality control contributes significantly to the maintenance of freshness in fish and shellfish. Monitoring conditions such as temperature and humidity during storage and transportation ensures that these products remain at optimal freshness levels. The seafood supply chain must adhere to strict standards to ensure that products are kept chilled and displayed properly, which in turn preserves their quality and nutritional value. Moreover, implementing proper handling techniques during processing, packaging, and transportation is critical. For instance, freezing and preservation techniques are essential during transport to maintain the sensory properties and freshness of seafood products. Prevention of Spoilage and Waste Effective quality control systems minimize spoilage and waste in the seafood industry. By employing techniques such as real-time monitoring and proper inventory management, seafood processors can ensure that products are used or sold within safe timeframes, reducing the risk of spoilage. Establishing traceability systems further aids in managing stock and identifying sources of spoilage, enabling swift action to be taken when issues arise. This proactive approach helps to reduce economic losses associated with unsold or spoiled products. Compliance with Regulations Quality control systems ensure compliance with national and international regulations governing food safety. This is particularly important in the seafood industry, where government oversight is stringent due to the potential risks associated with contaminated products. Adhering to these regulations not only prevent legal issues but also fosters consumer trust in seafood products. Economic Benefits Investing in robust quality control practices can yield economic benefits for seafood producers by reducing costs associated with recalls, liabilities, and waste management. Establishing a strong reputation for safety and quality can also enhance marketability and consumer confidence. Physical and Sensory Quality of Fish and Shellfish APPEARANCE Color - Fresh fish should exhibit vibrant and natural colors. For example, the flesh should be translucent and bright, while shellfish shells should appear clean and intact. Dull or discoloration can indicate spoilage. Clarity - The eyes of whole fish should be clear and bulging. Cloudiness or sunken eyes can indicate spoilage. In shellfish, the flesh should appear plump and moist rather than shriveled or dried out. Surface Condition - The skin of fish should be shiny and slippery, indicating freshness. Any signs of dryness or a dull appearance can suggest that the fish is old. Moisture - Fresh fish and shellfish should appear moist but not overly wet. Excessive moisture might suggest deterioration or poor storage practices. TEXTURE Firmness - Fresh fish should have a firm and resilient texture. When pressed, the flesh should bounce back. If the flesh leaves an indentation, it may indicate that the fish is no longer fresh. Fillet Integrity - For fish fillets, separation between muscle flakes should be minimal. Fresh fillets should not exhibit excessive flaking, which can be a sign of spoilage. ODOR Freshness - Fresh fish and shellfish should have a mild, pleasant sea-like aroma. A strong, fishy, or ammonia-like smell is a sign of spoilage. The presence of any off-putting odor such as sour smells are indications of spoilage which means that the seafood may not be safe to consume. TASTE Flavor - Fresh seafood should have a pleasant and mild taste. Off-flavors or bitterness may indicate that the fish or shellfish is no longer fresh. The taste is predominantly influenced by how the seafood is handled and stored. COOKING CHARACTERISTICS Texture Changes When Cooked - The quality of fish and shellfish can also be assessed based on how they cook. High-quality fish should maintain its texture and not disintegrate during cooking, while cooked shellfish should be tender yet slightly firm. INDICATORS OF DONENESS Color and Firmness When Cooked - For cooked products, the flesh should change to an appropriate color (typically opaque) and firm up. For example, the separation of muscle flakes and the firmness of the flesh are critical indicators of doneness. Chemical Quality The chemical quality of fish and shellfish is based on the study conducted by Fonseca- Rodríguez, C., & Chavarría-Solera, F. (2017). Moisture Content - Fish and shellfish typically have high moisture content, which can range widely depending on species and processing methods. For example, moisture content has been reported to range from 74.6% to 89.5% in various marine species. Protein Content - Seafood is a rich source of protein, offering all essential amino acids. Fish and shrimp species studied often exhibit protein contents from about 10.73% for freshwater clam to 19.86% for sole. Fat Content - The lipid content in fish and shellfish also varies by species and can influence their health benefits. The fat content can range from as low as 0.7 g/100g to over 5 g/100g, with shrimp typically showing higher lipid levels. Ash Content - This component indicates the mineral content of seafood, providing insights into its nutritional quality. In some studies, ash content has been found to range from approximately 0.84% to 1.65%. Thio barbituric Acid (TBA) Values - used to determine lipid oxidation levels in seafood. Higher TBA values indicate greater rancidity, which can impact flavor and safety. Free Fatty Acids (FFA) - The presence of FFAs can indicate quality degradation, as they form during lipid breakdown. pH Level - The pH of fish and shellfish affects their shelf life and quality. Fresh seafood usually has a pH around neutral; however, it can become more acidic during spoilage. Total Volatile Nitrogen (TVN) - This measurement helps indicate spoilage levels, with increased TVN being a sign of protein degradation. Monitoring TVN can effectively assess fish quality throughout storage. Quality Evaluation & Monitoring Basic Methods of Quality Control in Meat The following criteria define the quality of meat and meat products: ✓ palatability (typical texture and consistency, juiciness, good flavor). ✓ proportion of lean meat to fat. ✓ freshness and adequate conservability of the products ✓ absence of harmful micro-organisms or substances. ✓ appropriate (preferably minimal) use of additives and meat extenders. The different criteria need different methods of quality control, such as: Organoleptic evaluation Physical test methods Microbiological examination Chemical analysis 1\. Organoleptic Evaluation 1.1 Appearance The way meat looks, either as a carcass or as boneless meat cuts, has an important impact on its objective or subjective evaluation. Grading is an objective evaluation method in this context. Skilled graders can classify different carcasses by checking the size, the volume of muscular tissue, fat layers, etc. The way the consumers or the processors check the appearance of meat is subjective. 1.2 Color The color indicates the type and stage of the treatment to which the meat has been subjected, as well as the stage of freshness. Meat, which is in the process of losing its freshness, however, no longer shows a bright red color, even when intensively exposed to the air, because of the partial destruction of the red meat pigment which results in a grey, brown or greenish color. 1.3 Texture & Consistency (Tenderness & Juiciness) Meat tenderness depends on the animal species from which the meat originates. Lamb, pork and poultry meats are sufficiently tender after slaughter, but beef requires a certain period of maturation to achieve optimal eating quality. The simple way to check the consistency of foods is by chewing. 1.4 Smell and Taste (Aroma & Flavor) The smell of fresh meat should be slightly acidic, increasing in relation to the duration of the ripening period because of the formation of acids such as lactic acid. On the other hand, meat in decomposition generates an increasingly unpleasant odor owing to substances originating from the bacterial degradation of the meat proteins, such as sulfur compounds, mercaptan, etc. The flavor of fresh meat can also be checked by putting small samples (approx. 10 pieces of 1 cm^3^ each) in preheated water of 80°C for about five minutes (boiling test). The odor of the cooking broth and the taste of the warm meat samples will indicate whether the meat was fresh or in deterioration or subject to undesired influences. Instrumentation used for Color Color-measuring instruments, based on human color perception contain correction factors for both lighting and human visual responses. 1\. Trichromatic colorimeter - This valve amplified instrument comprised a stable light source and three wideband red, green and blue filters, which approximated CIE standard illuminant C and the 2° observer. The tristimulus values obtained were transformed into the Hunter L, a, b (or aL bd color space to approximate visual spacing. 2\. Spectrophotometers - are the most accurate type of color-measuring instrument. They are usually fitted with an integrating sphere and a choice of reflectance geometries. Inclusion or exclusion of the specular or gloss component depends on which geometry is appropriate for the product application. Measurement of Water Holding Capacity Water Holding Capacity (WHC) - is the ability of meat or more generally of meat systems to hold all or part of its own and/or added water. Three main ways of treatment can be divided in three different basic procedures for measuring WHC, i.e. (i) applying no force, (ii) applying mechanical force and (iii) applying thermal force. I. Applying No Force - To this group of methods belongs the measurement of evaporation and weight loss, free drip, bag drip, weep, cube drip, and related methods. Whereby the meat is left to itself under different environmental conditions. II\. Applying Mechanical Force - By using positive or negative pressure the WHC of meat can be detected within a few minutes or up to an hour. In this group are the centrifugation methods, the filter paper press method, and the imbibing methods. With these methods, the amount of water released is higher than with the methods discussed under applying no force (since the pressure applied forces the release of water from the intra- and extracellular space of the muscle tissue. III\. Applying Thermal Force - Since meat usually is consumed after cooking, the WHC of cooked meat is of central interest. Cooking losses can be measured by a wide variety of methods. Meat Texture Measurement 1.Subjective Assessment -- This test is to use consumers (or panelists) to test the product and ask them to score the meat in terms of their impression of tenderness 2\. Objective Assessment - Mechanical and chemical assessments are used either to measure the tenderness of meat or to predict what the ultimate tenderness will be after processing, distribution, sale and preparation. I Shear and Biting systems - (Warner-Bratzler shear, Kramer Shear, Nip Tenderometer) Compression Methods -- a variety of universal testing instrument-based devices that use a wedge-shaped tooth to compress a standard-sized sample. Tensile Assessment -- Devices measuring tensile characteristics are considered from a purely mechanical analysis viewpoint as \'purer\' assessments, which are likely to provide more readily interpretable information for understanding textural changes. Penetration Methods - Traditional butchers often gain their assessment of tenderness by pushing a finger into raw meat to judge firmness and thereby tenderness. This approach has been converted to penetrometer methods. Fragmentation Methods - One sensory characteristic often scored is the ease of fiber fragmentation. Physical measurement of this same characteristic has been used as a measure of tenderness. It is used as a measure of the changes during aging. 2\. Physical Test Method Physical test methods focus either on the actual condition of meat and meat products, or on the conditions around the product, for example in storage rooms, packages, etc. Equipment will be needed for all these tests which is easily applicable and resistant to utilization under the conditions of practical meat handling and processing. 2.1 Temperature Storage of meat and meat products requires low temperatures to make sure that the growth of micro-organisms will be retarded (chilling between-1 to +4°C) or inhibited (freezing preferably in the range of -18 to -30°C). Cooking of meat requires high temperatures (starting from a temperature of about 55°C needed for denaturation, but generally higher temperatures are applied, up to 100°C) Canning of meat requires temperatures above 100°C, and for sterilized products where all micro-organisms are inactivated, at least 121°C. These examples demonstrate the importance of different temperatures for different purposes and the necessity of exact temperature measurements using thermometers or temperature recorders: Glass thermometers - should not be used in direct contact with meat because they may break, leaving undesired fragments in the meat, but they are useful when permanently fixed to walls of chillers or production rooms or to cooking equipment or autoclaves for easy checking of the relevant temperatures. Mechanical bimetal-thermometers - utilizing the extension or contraction of a bimetal spiral under various temperatures, are not very accurate and not sufficiently shock-resistant for practical work in meat industries Electrical thermometers - consisting of a sensor and a battery-powered electronic instrument, are well suited for meat industries. Under different temperatures, differences in the electric conductibility of the sensor are produced. The temperature which the sensor takes up by contact to the surrounding media (water, air, meat, etc.) produces a certain voltage in the electric system. 2.2 Humidity In cutting rooms, the humidity of the air should be below the level which would cause vapor condensation on the surfaces of the meat being deboned and cut. Vapor condensation may enhance bacterial growth. Storage chillers for fresh meat require a balanced air humidity that does not cause wet surfaces on the meat with resulting accelerated bacterial growth, but on the other hand keeps evaporation losses low. The relative humidity recommended for this special purpose lies in the range of 70 percent. In simple but less accurate hygrometers a hair or special synthetic fiber relates to a pointer and, according to the contraction of the hair or fiber under dry conditions and its extension under wet conditions, the pointer indicates the actual relative humidity on an appropriate scale. A more accurate way for humidity control is the psychrometric system. These instruments use a dry and a wet sensor to define the Ambiental temperature. 2.3 Water Activity Water activity is the free water available for microbial growth in a food product. Free water is that part of the water content that can be eliminated from the product in the form of water vapor. The lowest aw-values permitting growth of spoilage organisms are: normal bacteria 0.91 normal yeasts 0.88 normal molds 0.80 halophilic (NaCl-tolerant) bacteria 0.77. 2.4 Airtight Closure of Cans For shelf-stable canned meat products two aspects are important from the microbiological standpoint. During sterilization, micro-organisms and their spores must be inactivated, and the can must be hermetically sealed to avoid further contamination of the product after sterilization. To verify if the can does not leak, an air-pump with a special device is used to penetrate the tinplate, the air is pumped into a closed but empty can. 2.5 Weight differences The high water content of meat (approx. 70 percent) and meat products (which varies from 70 percent to 10 percent) causes weight differences owing to evaporation losses or drip losses that occur during handling, processing, or storage. Some meat products require weight losses by evaporation to reach their specific keeping quality, for example raw hams, dry sausages or dried meat. In this case, water activity as previously described plays an important role. 2.6 Salt concentrations in brines Dry curing methods (dry salt and curing ingredients on the meat), brines are also used for pickling and curing the meat. Salt is a limiting factor for the sensory quality of the products; in other words, salt is needed but should not exceed 2.5 to 3 percent in cooked cured products and 4.5 to 5 percent in raw cured and dried products. Salimeters - are used to measure salinity, dipped into the brine and according to a lower or higher salt content they sink deeper or less deep into the brine thus these is type of densimeter. 3\. Chemical Method Chemical characteristics of foods are related to the product itself and refer primarily to the content of specific substances, which are important from the point of view of keeping quality, flavor, nutritional value, etc., or which may also represent harmful residues. 3.1 pH The pH-value or acidity of meat is important in relation to the meat\'s microbiological and keeping quality. In the live animal the pH-value of the muscular tissue is about 7.0 to 7.1 After slaughter a drop in the pH-value is observed and after several hours (24 hours or less) the pH-value reaches its lowest level of about 5.6 to 5.8 The pH is measured on meat surfaces or in the meat itself, in the latter case by pushing the sensor into the muscle or by means of an incision using a knife. The sensor consists of a glass electrode filled with an electrolyte (solution of KC1) and a sensitive glass membrane attached at the top. 3.2 Moisture/fat/protein determination Revolutionary techniques were introduced using X-rays, infra-red radiation or microwaves in automatic equipment for quick analyses of moisture, fat and protein. For routine controls, were not necessarily highly accurate but reliable results on moisture, fat, protein and organic components (ash) are needed, cheaper and less complicated methods can be applied. For chemical evaluation several screening methods are also available using different test papers. The results are indicated by changes of the color of certain areas on the paper strips. These test papers are used for pH-measurement, screening of the nitrite content and even for the screening of some harmful residues such as antibiotics. 4\. Microbiological Method 4.1 Trigger methods Microbiological culture media in special small molds are lightly pressed against walls, equipment (knives, machines), meat surfaces or hands of personnel. The micro-organisms adherent to these objects are absorbed by the surface of the culture media, and after adequate incubation (one to two days at 30 to 37°C), microbial colonies can be identified and counted on the media. Instead of culture media a special sterile strip of cello tape together with a trigger can be used for taking samples. 4.2 Swab Method Surface contamination related to a certain area can be sampled using a sterile swab. After rubbing the swab gently along the surface to be tested, it is suspended on the surface of a culture media. In contrast with the trigger method, bacterial contamination can be spread over the whole surface which is important in the case of high contamination. Thus, the samples can always be evaluated since the single colonies are not grown together. However, the method lacks some accuracy since bacteria may remain in the swab. Meat Inspection & Grading Meat Inspection - is a careful and continuous examination of the meat and meat products for wholesomeness. Inspection is mandatory when meat is being slaughtered and processed for sale. Meat Grading - It is a procedure by which carcasses are segregated based on their expected palatability (how it will taste with respect to tenderness, juiciness, and flavor) and yield attributes (closely trimmed edible cuts from the carcass). Grading serves to separate products into standardized groups of common characteristics to aid in the marketing of these products. Grading for quality is voluntary, and the service is requested and paid for by meat and poultry producers/processors. USDA Beef Grading Beef is graded as whole carcasses in two ways: Quality grades - for tenderness, juiciness, and flavor and Yield grades - for usable lean meat on the carcass. There are eight quality grades for beef. Quality grades are based on the amount of marbling (flecks of fat within the lean), color, and maturity. 1.Prime Beef - is the highest grade a piece of beef can receive. Only about 2-5% of beef sold in the food service industry receives this grading. Prime Beef Marbling: Abundant, 8-13%. Fat Prime Beef Source: Young, well-fed cattle (Between ages of 9-30 months). Prime Beef Characteristics: Extremely tender, juicy, and flavorful. How to Cook Prime Beef: Grilled, broiled, roasted, sous vide. Prime Beef Cuts: Prime rib, wagyu. 2\. Choice Beef - is one of the most common USDA beef grades in the food service industry, with approximately 50-55% of cattle receiving this rating. Angus beef is the most well-known example of choice grade quality meat. Choice Beef Marbling: Moderate, 4-10% Fat Choice Beef Source: Young, well-fed cattle (Between ages of 9-30 months) Choice Beef Characteristics: Tender, slightly juicy, quality at lower price point How to Cook Choice Beef: Braised, roasted, simmered Choice Beef Cuts: Ribeye, sirloin 3\. Select Beef - is a popular option in retail markets for its uniformity and lower price tag. This cut benefits the most by using a meat tenderizer in preparation. This also means that select grade beef is lean in comparison to higher grades, making it a great choice for healthier menus. Select Beef Marbling: Modest to small, 2-4% Fat Select Beef Source: Young, well-fed cattle (Between ages of 9-30 months) Select Beef Characteristics: Lean, affordable but meets quality standards of USDA How to Cook Select Beef: Smoked, braised, stewed Select Beef Cuts: Brisket, chuck, shank 4\. Standard Beef - Any piece of beef sold below select grade gets very little attention in the foodservice industry. Standard grade beef is often sourced from a more mature cow (age between 30-42 months) and will only have slight traces of marbling. It is often ungraded or listed as store-brand meat and is usually the most affordable option sold in a grocery store. Standard-grade beef should be tenderized and marinated to add moisture and flavor to the meat. 5\. Commercial Beef - Commercial grade beef is typically reserved for high-quality and lean ground beef blends. Because they lack marbling and are from older cattle, they are added with other beef cuts to create ground beef suitable for hamburgers and meatballs at an economic price point. 6\. Utility, Cutter & Canner - The last three beef grades are often bundled together as they are typically not sold raw for foodservice. Utility beef is predominantly reserved for processed meat products, like frozen meals and canned stews. Cutter and canner grade beef is often used to make pet food. The inspector will assess the meat based on several predetermined factors. These include: Marbling - This relates to the amount of fat interspersed with lean meat. Meat with high marbling is generally better quality. Marbling is one of the most critical factors for beef grading, as it determines the flavor, tenderness, and juiciness of the meat. Maturity - The age of the animal also comes into play during the inspection. Higher-quality cuts are typically taken from younger cattle (up to 42 months old), while older cows usually produce lower-grade cuts. Color - Inspectors look for a juicy red color to the meat. Grey, brown, or faded colors are generally worse in quality and flavor. Texture - USDA inspectors also grade meat based on its texture. Soft, firm, and tender cuts perform best in the rankings. Meat Grading In some cases, inspectors utilize technology to assist with the grading process. Tools like video image analysis can be used to measure the amount of marbling and give a more accurate size of the ribeye area. Hyperspectral imaging technique is an upcoming and promising field of research for non- destructive quality assessment of agricultural and food products including meat. It is sensitive, fast, with simplicity in sample preparation allowing simultaneous assessment of numerous meat properties. Hyperspectral Imaging is a new analytical technique based on spectroscopy. It collects hundreds of images at different wavelengths for the same spatial area. Egg Grading Egg quality is a general term which refers to several standards which define both internal and external quality. External quality of the egg shape, texture, soundness, and cleanliness of the shell can be determined without using the candling light. Internal Quality - Even under the most favorable conditions, egg quality is relatively unstable as the interior quality of the egg deteriorates from the time it is laid until it is consumed. In grading eggs, the grader is merely trying to group the eggs according to where each is located on "quality hill." According to USDA, shell color does not affect the quality of the egg and is not a factor in the U.S. standards and grades. Eggs are usually sorted for color and sold as either "whites" or "browns. However, it is recognized that brown eggs are more difficult to classify as interior quality than white eggs. It is also more difficult to detect small blood and/or meat spots in brown eggs. ABNORMALITIES Double-yolked eggs - result when two yolks are released about the same time, or when one yolk is lost into the body cavity for a day and is picked up by the funnel when the next day's yolk is released. Yolkless eggs - are usually formed around a bit of tissue that is sloughed off the ovary or oviduct. This tissue stimulates the secreting glands of the oviduct and a yolkless egg result. An egg within an egg - is due to the reversal of direction of the egg by the wall of the oviduct. One day's egg is added to the next day's egg and the shell is formed around both. Blood spots - are caused by a rupture of one or more small blood vessels in the yolk follicle at the time ovulation. Since the albumen of freshly laid eggs is usually cloudy, the detection of small blood spots during candling is difficult. Meat Spots - have been demonstrated to be either blood spots which have changed in color due to chemical action, or tissue sloughed off from the reproductive organs of the hen, although most meat spots are from sources other than blood spots. Soft-shelled eggs - generally occur when an egg is prematurely laid, and insufficient time in the uterus prevents the deposit of the shell. Thin-shelled eggs may be caused by dietary deficiencies, heredity, or disease. Glassy- and chalky-shelled eggs - are caused by malfunctions of the uterus of the laying bird. Glassy eggs are less porous and will not hatch but may retain their quality. Off-colored yolks - are due to substances in feed that cause off-color. Off-flavored eggs - may be due to certain feed flavors or improper storage practices. Candling -- is a method used in embryology to study the growth and development of an embryo. EXTERNAL QUALITY 1.Shell Shape and Texture - The normal egg has an oval shape with one end larger than the other, and it tapers toward the smaller end. Eggs that are unusual in shape may have ridges, rough areas, or thin spots. Practically normal - A shell that approximates the usual shape and is sound and free from thin spots. Ridges and rough areas that do not materially affect the shape and strength of the shell are Qpermitted (AA OR A uality). Abnormal - A shell that may be somewhat unusual or decidedly misshapen or faulty in soundness or strength or that may show pronounced ridges or thin spots (B quality). 2\. Soundness of Shell. Sound --- An egg whose shell is unbroken Check --- An individual egg that has a broken shell or a crack in the shell but its shell membranes are intact and its contents do not leak. Leaker --- An individual egg that has a crack or break in the shell and shell membranes to the extent that the egg contents are exuding or free to exude through the shell. The leakers are classed as a loss. 3\. Shell Cleanliness Clean --- A shell that is free from foreign material and from stains or discolorations that are readily visible. An egg may be considered clean if it has only very small specks, stains, or cage marks Dirty --- A shell that is unbroken and has dirt or foreign material adhering to its surface, has prominent stains, or has moderate stains covering more than one-thirty-second of the shell surface if localized, or one-sixteenth of the shell surface if scattered. INTERIOR QUALITY 1\. Air Cell - When the egg is first laid, it has no air cell at all or only a small one. Its temperature is about 105 °F (40.6 °C) and, as the egg cools, the liquids contract more than the shell. As a result of this contraction, the inner shell membrane separates from the outer to form an air space. The air cell is the easiest quality factor to evaluate, as it can be judged objectively by a simple measuring device. 2\. Yolk - The characteristics of the yolk are determined by the shadow that it casts upon the shell before the candling light. The distinctness of the yolk outline or shadow outline is governed by three factors: The thickness & Consistency of white Condition of the yolk Color of the yolk Yolk Index - The yolk index is calculated by dividing the yolk height by the yolk diameter of the egg broken onto a flat surface. YI = Yolk height/yolk diameter 3\. Haugh Unit - it is a measure of egg protein quality based on the height of its egg white(albumen). The height of the thick albumen surrounding the yolk, combined with the egg weight, determines the Haugh unit score. The higher the score, the better the egg quality. Relationship of Yolk Index & Haugh Unit The Haugh unit score declines rapidly with the passage of storage time; therefore, it can sensitively quantify the egg deterioration at the early stage after being laid. However, the yolk index score declines slowly with the passage of the storage period, enabling the detection of quality differences even among degraded eggs. SPECIFIC GRAVITY (1.06) - A fresh egg will generally sink and remain submerged in solutions with a specific gravity above approximately 1.060 (Grade 3 or higher). Eggs that float in lower-density solutions are considered less fresh or spoiled. Pork Grading Pork is not graded by USDA quality grades as it is generally produced from young animals that have been bred and fed to produce more uniformly tender meat. Appearance is an important guide in buying fresh pork. The meat is either acceptable or unacceptable. Poultry Grading Poultry grades are designated by letters, not names. The best type of poultry is labeled "Grade A" and has a clean appearance, is well fleshed-out, and is free from major defects. It's the ideal poultry for high-end restaurants and specialty stores. "Grade B" and "Grade C" are the lower grades of poultry. They're typically used in processed products, such as ground and breaded poultry, where the appearance of the meat is less important. They're often cheaper but of lower quality. Fish Quality Assessment The methods for evaluation of fresh fish quality may be conveniently divided into two categories. 1\. Sensory evaluation is one of the most important methods for assessing freshness and quality in the fishing sector and in fish-inspection services. Objectives Seafood sensory tests, based on certain attribute of raw fish (skin, eyes, gills, texture, etc.), are the most used methods for quality assessment of raw whole fish in the inspection service and fishing industry. There are several grading methods used to assess freshness in fish and fish products such as: The European Union scheme, The quality index method. The torry scoring system. The European Union scheme - This method gives rather limited information about the condition of the fish, as it is not species-related and does not therefore consider the differences between species. The EU-scheme is commonly accepted at auction levels however its use has been disputed. Quality Index Method - It is critical for a sensory system used in quality management that it reflects the different quality levels in a simple and documented way. The method is based on characteristic changes that occur in raw fish. These relate to the outer appearance attributes of the eyes, skin, gills and odor and a score system from 0 to 3 demerit (index) points. The scores for all of the characteristics are summarized to give an overall sensory score, the so-called Quality Index. QIM must be adapted to each fish species. The Torry Scoring System - Torry Freshness Score is a systematic scoring system, originated in UK, based on objective sensory scoring method (tester(s) will smell the fish gill odor) to assess the state of fish or the fish freshness. The results of evaluation generally correlate to (density of) presence of microorganisms that cause spoilage, as lower score implies more presence of microorganisms. The scoring system starts with 10 and declines. Ten (10) is the highest score for newly caught fish, 7 is in the neutral range, 6 is at the \'borderline\', and 3 or lower score is considered spoiled. Customers generally reject them when it is down at the 6 score or lower. The Torry-scores method explaining the freshness of the cooked fish and score sheets for assessment of cooked odors and flavors of iced lean fish. Quality deterioration of fish is first characterized by the initial loss of the fresh fish flavor (sweet, seaweed) which is followed by the development of a neutral odor/flavor. 2\. Non sensory or Instrumental Method A. Bio-Chemical Methods Proximate Composition -- Lipids, proteins, moisture, ash etc. Hypoxanthin value: Hypoxanthin content of muscle increases on storage of fish. Estimation of hypoxanthin is an objective test of freshness of fish. Fish with a hypoxanthin value of 7-8 micro moles/g is considered spoiled. Histamine content: Histamine develops in freshly caught fish after 40-50 hours of death, if the fish is not properly iced. To avoid histamine formation in tuna, skipjack, and mackerel, care is taken to ice or freeze fish as quickly as possible. Histamin is a major problem in warm water pelagic species that causes a form of food poisoning known as scombroid poisoning pH: Change in pH of the fish muscle is an usual good index for freshness assessment. Trimethylamine: Marine fish contains sizable amount of trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) which is reduced to trimethylamine (TMA) during the spoilage of fish. Fish with a level of 1.5 mg TMA nitrogen/100 g fish is considered acceptable, while 10-15 mg/100 g limit is set for moderately spoilt fish and beyond this range is set for highly spoilt fish. Ammonia: Bacteria can generate small amounts of ammonia in spoiling fish, mainly from free amino acids: the amount of ammonia can give an indication, though not a particularly accurate one of the extents of spoilage Peroxide value: Oxidative rancidity developed in fish tissue is determined by the estimation of peroxide value. Good quality fish should have a peroxide value quite less than 10. Peroxide value above 20 for any fish is considered rancid. Thiobarbituric acid value (TBA): It is also determined as an index of oxidative rancidity in fish. For a good quality moderate lipid fish, TBA value of less than 2 is usually accepted. Total volatile basic amines (TVB). It is a general term which includes the measurement of volatile basic nitrogenous compounds associated with seafood spoilage such as trimethylamine, dimethylamine and ammonia. Accumulations of TMA and/or TVB-N are characterized by undesirable odors and flavors in fish and this can be used to indicate fish spoilage. B. Biological Method Total plate count (TPC): Total number of microbial florae is changed with the time in fish or fish products. The numbers per gram of fish or fish products or per square centimeter of the surface area indicates the quality of fish from the microbiological viewpoint. The activity of bacteria in the fish, especially the specific spoilage bacteria (SSB), including (Shewanella, Photobacterium or Pseudomonas) decomposes various fish components such as TMAO and produces undesirable odors, flavors and taste in the fish as well as being a health hazard to consumers. C. Physical Method The electrical properties of fish skin and muscle change systematically after death and can be used as the basis of an instrument; a few models are commercially available, including the Torrymeter. Change in the electrical properties in fish can be used as an indicative sign of quality deterioration in fish and therefore provides a means of measuring post mortem changes or the level of spoilage The Torry meter is a compact device, equipped with a sensing unit with a pair of electrodes which passes an alternating current through the fish and as a result voltage is sensed in the inner pair Temperature of the fish should be between 0°C to 10°C The instruments can be used only on whole fish or fillets with skin. Frozen fish, when thawed, give no response to the meter and this can be used as a basis for checking whether fish have been previously frozen. Measuring Texture -- Kramer Shear Test, Quality Requirements For Primary & Secondary Processing Primary Processing - encompasses the initial steps taken after harvesting. For meat, this includes slaughtering, dressing, and packaging, while for fish and shellfish, it involves cleaning, gutting, and chilling to preserve freshness and prevent spoilage. The primary goal is to maintain hygiene and safety, as meats and seafood are highly perishable. Techniques such as high-pressure processing (HPP) are increasingly utilized to eliminate pathogens like Vibrio and Listeria, enhancing microbiological safety while minimally affecting sensory properties. Effective primary processing is vital for the subsequent stages and assures compliance with food safety standards. Secondary processing - refers to the transformation of primary products into ready-to-eat or value-added items. This involves methods such as cooking, curing, smoking, and marinating for meat, and filleting, canning, or freezing for fish and shellfish. These processes are designed to enhance flavors, improve shelf life, and provide convenience for consumers. For instance, curing and smoking not only preserve meat but also impart unique flavors. Additionally, techniques such as salt replacers are used in secondary processing to reduce sodium content while preserving the sensory quality of the food. The balance between enhanced flavors and nutritional quality is a significant focus of ongoing research in the seafood sector. Quality requirements for Primary Processing Quality Requirements for Meat Hygiene Standards - Strict hygiene protocols must be followed at all stages of meat processing, including the implementation of Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) systems to prevent contamination and ensure food safety. Veterinary Inspection - All animals must undergo veterinary examinations before and after slaughter to ensure they are free from diseases. The detection of diseases during these inspections is critical to maintain the quality of meat released into the market. Processing Environment - The processing environment should be clean, well-maintained, and equipped with appropriate facilities to handle carcasses safely, minimizing contamination. Proper ventilation and temperature control are essential to prevent spoilage. Handling and Equipment - Equipment used in meat processing, including knives and saws, should be sanitized regularly to avoid cross-contamination. Furthermore, the handling of carcasses must minimize stress and injuries to improve meat quality. Blood and Contamination Management - Effective bleeding methods are crucial to prevent contamination of carcasses and ensure high-quality meat. Blood must be collected and disposed of properly to avoid contamination. Quality Requirements for Fish and Shellfish Freshness and Handling - Fish and shellfish need to be cooled immediately after harvesting to maintain freshness and prevent spoilage. The use of ice or refrigerated containers during transport is critical. Hygiene Practices - Like meat, stringent hygiene practices must be implemented during the handling and processing of fish and shellfish. This includes regular disinfection of surfaces and equipment to avoid bacterial contamination. Temperature Control - Maintaining appropriate temperatures throughout processing and storage is vital to prevent the growth of pathogens. This is especially important for shellfish, which can be prone to contamination if not chilled immediately, fish and shellfish should be kept on ice or refrigerated throughout processing to prevent spoilage. Maintaining a temperature below 4°C is critical to ensure freshness. Microbial Testing - Regular microbiological testing should be conducted to assess the safety of fish and shellfish products, ensuring that they comply with safety standards and regulations. It is essential to ensure that fish products meet safety standards. This includes screening for harmful bacteria such as Listeria and Salmonella. Sensory Evaluation - Quality indicators such as appearance, smell, and texture must be evaluated to ensure that the fish and shellfish are suitable for consumption. Quality Requirements for Secondary Processing Processing Techniques The application of advanced processing techniques is critical in enhancing the quality and safety of secondary processed meat, fish, and shellfish. High-pressure processing (HPP) is particularly noteworthy, as it effectively eliminates common pathogens such as Vibrio and Listeria spp. while maintaining the sensory and nutritional properties of seafood products. HPP has been shown to prolong the shelf life of seafood by delaying spoilage and degradation of quality during storage. When applied at pressures between 400-600 MPa, it has minimal effects on the organoleptic properties of fish and shellfish, thereby allowing for the creation of clean label products. Additives and Preservatives The use of additives and preservatives plays a significant role in maintaining the quality and safety of meat, fish, and shellfish products. Sodium chloride is commonly used in the curing and preservation of fish products, and its levels must comply with regulatory standards to ensure food safety. For instance, red caviar produced from salmon fish is subject to specific limits on sodium chloride and preservatives such as E200 and E210, ensuring they remain within safe consumption levels. Other common preservatives include natural agents such as chitosan, which can be derived from fish scales and have been recommended for use as an edible coating to enhance the shelf life of seafood products. The application of such biodegradable coatings has shown promising results in extending the freshness and quality of fish fillets during storage. Packaging and Storage Proper packaging methods are essential for maintaining the quality of processed meat and seafood products. Vacuum packaging is widely used to extend the shelf life by reducing the oxygen level within the package, effectively slowing down the growth of aerobic spoilage bacteria. Furthermore, the integration of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) can further enhance the freshness of products by altering the gas composition inside the packaging. Storage conditions also significantly affect the quality and safety of secondary processed products. For instance, fish broths are recommended to be frozen at temperatures of -18°C and stored for no more than six months to preserve their qualities. Monitoring temperature and humidity during storage is crucial to prevent spoilage and ensure the shelf life of products meets consumer safety standards. Labelling and Traceability Labelling and traceability are essential components that ensure transparency and consumer confidence in food products. Food labels must accurately reflect the contents, including any preservatives or additives used. The inclusion of nutritional information, origin labeling, and allergen warnings is critical for consumer safety and informed purchasing decisions. Traceability systems allow for the tracking of products through all stages of processing and distribution, which is vital for ensuring quality control and responding quickly to any food safety issues. The importance of these systems is underscored in fisheries, where fish products often undergo several processing stages, making traceability essential to ensure they meet required safety and quality standards. Good Agricultural & Manufacturing processes to Assure Quality and Food safety Meat & Poultry Meat REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9296, OTHERWISE KNOWN AS "THE MEAT INSPECTION CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES. RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNITS 1\. Regulatory Responsibilities 1.1 Regulation of Slaughterhouses and Meat Establishments Construction and Management: LGUs are responsible for regulating the construction, management, and operation of slaughterhouses and meat establishments within their respective jurisdictions. Licensing and Accreditation: They have the authority to license and accredit slaughterhouses, poultry dressing plants, and other meat establishments based on compliance with national standards. 1.2 Monitoring and Compliance Inspection Protocols: LGUs are mandated to conduct inspections to ensure compliance with hygiene and safety standards set forth by national policies. This includes ante-mortem and post-mortem inspections of animals. Oversight of Meat Transport: They are also responsible for monitoring the transport of meat and ensuring that meat products maintain safety standards throughout the distribution process. 2\. Implementation of National Policies 2.1 Local Adaptation of National Standards Policy Enforcement: LGUs are tasked with enforcing national meat inspection policies at the local level. They must adapt these policies to fit local contexts while ensuring that food safety and quality standards are met. Training Local Personnel: LGUs must ensure that personnel involved in meat inspection are adequately trained and equipped to perform their duties competently, aligning with guidelines provided by the National Meat Inspection Service (NMIS). 3\. Health and Safety Protection 3.1 Protecting Public Health Disease Control: LGUs help to protect public health by monitoring for diseases, meat-borne infections, and other health hazards associated with meat products. Consumer Education: Local authorities often engage in consumer education initiatives to inform the public about safe meat handling practices and the importance of meat inspection for food safety. 4\. Collaboration and Coordination 4.1 Working with National Agencies Synergistic Efforts: LGUs collaborate with the NMIS and the Department of Agriculture to align local and national meat inspection efforts, fostering a comprehensive approach to meat safety. Feedback Mechanisms: They play a role in providing feedback on national policies and how they are implemented at the local level, which can influence future regulatory adjustments and improvements in practices. Challenges Faced by LGUs Despite the defined roles and responsibilities, LGUs encounter various challenges in executing effective meat inspection: Resource Limitations: Many LGUs face limitations in staffing, training, and financial resources, which can hinder their ability to conduct thorough inspections and maintain facilities. Compliance Monitoring: Ensuring compliance among small or informal meat vendors can be challenging, especially in areas where enforcement may be less stringent. Public Awareness: There may also be a lack of public awareness regarding the importance of meat inspection, leading to challenges in enforcing standards and promoting safe practices. Standard on ASEAN Good Aquaculture Practices for Food Fish Aquaculture plays a crucial role in the economies of several developing countries in Southeast Asia, with countries like Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam being among the top aquaculture producers. In addition, Cambodia\'s inland fisheries also contribute significantly to this industry. The aquaculture industry not only supports food security and nutrition but also plays a vital role in the economic and social development of these countries. Many ASEAN Member States heavily rely on the fisheries sector for income generation and employment opportunities, making it a key contributor to both national and regional development. The Standard on ASEAN Good Aquaculture Practices for Food Fish represents a set of guidelines designed to promote responsible and sustainable aquaculture practices within the ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) region. It aims to enhance food security, ensure the health of aquatic animals, minimize environmental impacts, and guarantee the safety and quality of fish products for consumers. Food Safety 1\. Aquaculture farms should be in an environmentally suitable area where risks to food safety from chemical, biological, and physical hazards from air, soil, and water is minimized. 2\. Where feed is used, aquaculture operations should include procedures for avoiding feed contamination in compliance with international standards or national regulations as determined by internationally agreed standards. 3\. Feed and feed ingredients used in the aquaculture operation shall not contain unsafe levels of biological, chemical, and physical contaminants and/or other adulterated substances. No prohibited substances shall be used in feed manufactured or prepared on farms. 4\. Feeds should be handled and stored in such a way as to prevent spoilage, mold growth and contamination. 5\. Farmers should only purchase commercial feed that has been registered with the competent authority and properly labeled in compliance with the requirements of the competent authority. Packages should be properly labeled with the description of composition storage conditions, expiry date, feeding rate, and other necessary guidance inadequate language. 6\. All veterinary drugs and chemicals for use in aquaculture shall comply with national regulations, as well as international guidelines. If veterinary drugs and chemical treatment is necessary, use only registered veterinary drugs and chemicals and follow the instructions on the manufacturer's label or as advised by the competent authority. 7\. Probiotics and biological agent inputs should be registered with and approved by the relevant/competent authorities. 8\. Water used for aquaculture should be of a quality suitable for the production of Fish. Water sources should be far from all pollution, sufficient and suitable throughout the year. 9\. Data related to food safety should be recorded, kept, maintained and made accessible during culture and for at least 24 months after production. 10\. Aquaculture farms should be used for aquaculture purposes only. Livestock production is not allowed unless done in distinct areas within the farm. Wild and domestic animals should be excluded from ponds and harvesting areas. 11\. Appropriate harvesting and post-harvest handling, of aquaculture products within the farm should be practiced minimizing contamination and physical damage. Water and ice used during harvesting and grading should be of quality suitable to produce food that is safe for human consumption. 12\. Workers should be trained on farm-level hygienic practices to ensure they are aware of their roles and responsibilities for protecting aquaculture products from contamination and deterioration throughout the production cycle. Animal health and welfare 1\. Aquatic animal health management programs and movement of aquatic animals and aquatic animal products should take place under the relevant provisions in the OIE Aquatic Animal Health Code to prevent the introduction or transfer of diseases and infectious agents pathogenic to aquatic animals while avoiding unwarranted sanitary measures. 2\. A culture environment should be maintained at all phases of the production cycle adapted to the species raised, to benefit aquatic animal health and welfare, and reduce the risks of introduction and spread of aquatic animal diseases. 3\. Veterinary medicines should be used in a responsible manner and accordance with applicable national legislation or relevant international agreements/guidelines that ensure effectiveness for animal health with consideration of the safety of the public and protection of the environment. 4\. Treatment and control of diseases with authorized veterinary drugs should be carried out only based on a proper diagnosis. 5\. Farmworkers and managers should be trained in good aquatic animal health and welfare management practices to ensure they are aware of their roles and responsibilities in maintaining aquatic animal health and welfare in Aquaculture. 6\. Record keeping of animal health and movement for traceability purposes should be maintained during culture and for at least 24 months after harvesting. Environmental Integrity 1\. The location of the aquaculture farm should be in accordance with local and national plans and regulations on environmental protection. 2\. Rehabilitation of damaged habitats caused by previous aquaculture operations should be encouraged. 3\. Effective mitigation measures should be taken if the current practices are damaging habitat/environment. 4\. Regular monitoring of farm environmental quality should be carried out. 5\. Records keeping of use of inputs, management of effluents, habitat rehabilitation, and environmental monitoring should be kept and maintained at least 24 months. 6\. Measures should be adopted to promote efficient water management and use, as well as proper management of effluents to reduce impacts on surrounding land, and water resources. 7\. Farm infrastructure construction and waste disposal should be conducted responsibly. 8\. Feeds, feed additives, chemicals, veterinary drugs, antimicrobials, fertilizer and fuel should be used responsibly to minimize their adverse impacts on the environment. 9\. Farmworkers and managers should be trained in environmental management and mitigation of impact to ensure they are aware of their responsibilities in protecting the environment. Socio-economic aspects 1\. Workers should be treated responsibly and in accordance with national labor rules and regulations and, where appropriate, relevant ILO conventions. 2\. Workers should be provided wages, benefits, and working conditions according to national laws and regulations. 3\. Child labor shall not be used in a manner inconsistent with national regulations and ILO conventions/standards. 4\. All laborers should undergo health and safety orientation prior to the start of work and Health and safety procedures should be available in the working station. 5\. Workers should receive fair and decent salaries consistent with existing laws and other regulations. 6\. Safe farm work conditions shall be always ensured in line with the Occupational Health and Safety (OH&S) conventions of the ILO. 7\. Workers should not be discriminated against based on gender. **Deterioration of Animal Products** Nature of deterioration in fresh and processing products When specific food deteriorated? A product is considered deteriorated when it has changed or spoiled and can no longer be used for its original purpose. Foods undergo deterioration of varying degrees in terms of their sensory characteristics, nutritional value, safety, and aesthetic appeal. Most foods, from the time they are harvested, slaughtered, or manufactured, undergo progressive deterioration, depending upon the food. DETERIORATION AND SPOILAGE Food Deterioration: A series of continuous degradative changes occurring in a food item that may affect the product's wholesomeness, result in a reduction of its quality, and/or alter its serviceability. Spoilage: Spoilage is a term that we often hear in conjunction with deterioration. It is often used as a synonym for deterioration. However, it needs to make distinction between these two terms. We define food spoilage as an arbitrary endpoint of the deterioration process, which denotes that a food item is unwholesome and, therefore, is no longer suitable for human consumption. UNWHOLESOME AND WHOLESOMENESS Wholesomeness: Wholesomeness is a term that refers to freedom from pathogenic or otherwise harmful microorganisms. Unwholesome: Unwholesome food is food procured, packed, or held under unsanitary conditions that renders it injurious to the health of the consumer, or food or food containers having naturally occurring or added harmful substances, or food found to be filthy, putrid, decomposed, or produced from a diseased animal or an animal that died other than by slaughter. Off-condition: is any variation from the expected appearance, feel, smell, or taste characteristics of a product when it was initially produced or processed for resale. Quality is a term that refers to the degree of excellence or grade of a Product. Serviceability: Serviceability is a term that refers to the usefulness of a food item. Reduced serviceability in a product may result in the use of additional processing methods to return the food item to its original state. Serviceability is a term that refers to the usefulness of a food item. Reduced serviceability in a product may result in the use of additional processing methods to return the food item to its original state. Fresh and processed products can deteriorate due to a variety of factors, including: Microbiological spoilage: Microorganisms like bacteria, yeast, and mold can grow in food and produce enzymes that cause spoilage. Some bacteria can cause food poisoning and infection. Chemical reactions: Chemical reactions like oxidation and enzymatic browning can change the flavor, color, odor, and texture of food. Moisture and vapor migration: Moisture can change the flavor, texture, and water activity of food. Dry foods can absorb too much moisture, while moist foods can become too dehydrated. Physical instabilities: Mechanical damage, glass transition, and starch gelatinization can affect the texture, appearance, and bioactive ingredients of food. Temperature: Both heat and cold can contribute to food deterioration. Light: Light can contribute to food deterioration. Time: Time is a factor in food deterioration. Insects, parasites, and rodents: These can contribute to food deterioration. Food processing: Food processing can alter the nutrient value of food. These causes are not isolated in nature. High temperature, moisture, and air will all affect the multiplication and activities of bacteria, as well as the chemical and enzymatic activities of the food. Bacteria, insects, and light can all be operating simultaneously to deteriorate food in the field or in a warehouse. At any one time, many forms of deterioration may be in progress, depending upon the food and environmental conditions. Preservation techniques are designed to counteract or slow the changes which cause deterioration by: Physical Deterioration, Chemical Degradation, Biological Changes PHYSICAL DETERIORATION Moisture absorption - A physical change that causes food deterioration is excessive moisture. The gross changes in foods from excessive moisture are part of Everyday experience. Dried, dehydrated, and freeze-dried foods are especially susceptible to this form of deterioration Temperature (low temperature) - Freezing of many foods will cause undesirable changes, such as the destruction of emulsions and texture. Fruits and vegetables that are allowed. To freeze and then thaw will have their texture disrupted. Skin's cracks leave the food susceptible to attack by microorganisms. The texture of Canned fruits and vegetables becomes softened and mushy due to uncontrolled freezing, also called as chilling injury. Temperature (high temperature) - Excessive heat treatment in green vegetables causes loss of integrity of cell walls and membranes with release of acids and enzymes. This Results in the softening of texture as well as the development of off-colors and off-flavors. The consequences of excessive heat on muscle tissue Leads to denaturation and clumping of proteins, and enzyme inactivation. Dehydration - is another form of physical change that causes food deterioration. It can be defined as the loss of water from the food product. The signs of dehydration include dryness or shriveling on the surface of the food item, development of off-colors, with usually a darkening effect. In frozen foods, the dehydration is known as freezer burn, whereas in fresh fruits and vegetables, it is known as wilt. Mechanical damage - When any food item receives mechanical damage, not only is the appearance of the item affected but the damaged food tissue also becomes More susceptible to other forms of deterioration. Such foods become more susceptible to invasion by microorganisms, for the damaged area serves as a port of entry. The notable changes would be a softening in the texture, development of off-colors, and development of off-Flavors. Light - causes food deterioration, by fading of color in many food items. Some vitamins are destroyed by light, notably riboflavin, vitamin A, and vitamin c. Milk in bottles exposed to the sun develops "sunlight" flavor due to light induced fat oxidation and changes in the protein. Time - Another major cause of food deterioration is that of time or the aging process. After slaughter, harvest, or food manufacture, there is a time when the quality of food is at its peak, but this is only a transitory period. The growth of microorganisms, destruction by insects, Action of food enzymes, non-enzymatic interaction of food constituents, loss of flavor, effects of heat, cold, moisture, oxygen, and light, all Progress with time. The longer the time, the greater the destructive influences. CHEMICAL DETERIORATION Enzymatic reaction - mostly in fruits and vegetables this phenomenon occurs because of certain enzyme catalyzing reactions on components in the food. Enzymes which are endogenous to plant tissues can have undesirable or desirable consequences. Oxidative rancidity - It occurs in fatty foods with high levels of unsaturation due to breakdown of fats and oils resulting into production of off-flavors and off odor. Enzymatic degradation - A typical example is an unappealing brown discoloration, which is seen when peeled ripe bananas or sliced apples, pears or some vegetables are exposed to the air. Enzymatic spoilage also causes the production of off-odors and off-flavors in foods such as meats and meat products. To prevent this type of spoilage, the enzyme in the food has to be inactivated before storage. BIOLOGICAL CHANGES Microbiological - The microorganisms that are principally involved in food deterioration are bacteria, molds, and yeasts. There are thousands of genera and species of microorganisms associated in one way or another with food products. Majority of foods (e.g. meat and fish, milk, eggs and most fresh fruits and vegetables) are classified as perishable unless they have been processed in some way. Often, the only form of processing which such foods receive is to be packaged and kept under controlled temperature conditions. Low moisture content foods such as dried fruit and vegetables and frozen foods are classified as semi-perishable. MACROBIOLOGICAL CHANGES Insects - Even though warm humid environments promote insect growth, most insects will not breed if the Temperature exceeds about 35 c° or falls below 10 c°. They can't reproduce satisfactorily unless the moisture content of their food is greater than about 11%. Rodents - Rats and mice carry disease-producing organisms on their feet and/or in their intestinal tracts and are known to harbor salmonella of serotypes frequently associated with food-borne infections in humans. In addition to the public health consequences of rodent populations near humans, these animals also compete intensively with humans for food. Proper sanitation in food processing and storage areas is the most effective weapon to fight against rodents, since all packaging materials apart from metal and glass containers can be attacked by rats and mice. Factors affecting product deterioration Microbial activity Lipid oxidation Activity Of Autolytic Enzymes Environmental Condition Stress and Handling Meat And Meat Products A series of the event takes place during rigor mortis after the slaughter of the animal such as: 1\. Respiration ceases, which stops ATP synthesis. 2\. The lack of ATP causes stiffening of muscle 3\. Reduction of oxidation-reduction potential due to lack of oxygen. 4\. The loss of vitamins and antioxidants causes the development of rancidity. 5\. Glycolysis begins in which most glycogen is converted to lactic acid that reduces pH. 6\. The ending of a reticuloendothelial system leads to the susceptibility of meat to microorganisms. 7\. Nervous and hormonal regulations cease, thereby causing the temperature of the animal to fall and fat to solidify. 8\. Various metabolites accumulate that also aid protein denaturation. Spoilage of Fresh Meat Fresh meat is subjected to spoilage by its enzymes and microbial action. The autolysis changes cause proteolytic action on muscle and connective tissue and hydrolysis of fats. The survival and growth of microorganisms are influenced by the composition of the atmosphere surrounding the meat. Fresh meat contains nutrients such as sugars, amino acids, vitamins, cofactors, etc and it had pH (5.5-5.9) and Aw (0.85) values that influence the growth of microorganisms. The most common bacteria isolated from fresh meat are bacteria of the genera Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas, Brochothrix thermosphacta, Flavobacterium, Psychrobacter, Moraxella, Staphylococci, Micrococci, lactic acid bacteria (LAB), and various genera of the Enterobacteriaceae. The microbial pathogens found in fresh meat are Salmonella, Campylobacter, E.coli, Listeria monocytogenes. Microbial growth, oxidation, and enzymatic autolysis are the three basic mechanisms responsible for the spoilage of meat. The nutrient composition, high water content, and moderate pH of meat make it an excellent medium for microbial growth. The normal flora of an animal's lymph nodes contaminating meat is Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Clostridium, and Salmonella. Meat may contain different bacteria that include species of Acinetobacter, Aeromonas, Alcaligenes, Alteromonas, Brochothrix, Carnobacterium, Escherichia, Enterobacter, Enterococcus, Flavobacterium, Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Micrococcus, Proteus, Pseudomonas, Sarcina, Serratia, and Streptococcus. Pathogenic microbial species contaminating meat are Salmonella enteric strains, Yersinia enterocolitica, Campylobacter jejuni, Aeromonas hydrophila, Listeria monocytogenes, and Escherichia coli. Mold species found in meat include Cladosporium, Sporotrichum, Geotrichum, Penicillium, and Mucor while yeasts species include Candida spp., Cryptococcus spp., and Rhodotorula spp. The main defects observed in meat are off-odor, off-flavor, discoloration, and gas production. Spoilage of Refrigerated Meat When fresh meat is refrigerated at 4 ± 1°C, they remain in good condition for 5-7 days Refrigerated temperature favors the growth of psychrophilic organisms in due course of time. The contaminations occur during slicing and serving operations, from hands, slicing machines, and other equipment. Inadequate hygiene can lead to meat contamination by spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms The important bacterial genera associated with spoilage of refrigerated meat are Acinetobacter, Moraxella, Pseudomonas, Aeromonas, Alcaligenes, and Micrococcus. The mold genera associated with spoilage of refrigerated meat are Alternaria, Cladosporium, Geotrichum, Mucor, Monilia, Penicillium, Sporotrichum, and Thamnidium; and yeast genera associated with spoilage of refrigerated meat are Candida, Torulopsis, Debaryomyces, and Rhodotorula. Generally, Brochothrix thermosphacta and lactic acid bacteria are the bacteria that cause spoilage of refrigerated meat. Pathogenic microorganisms found in refrigerated meats include C. botulinum type E, Yersinia enterocolitica, enteropathogenic Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and Aeromonas hydrophila as they can grow at temperatures below 5°C. Spoilage of Cured Meat Cured meat is the meats in which are preserved by aging, drying, canning, brining, or smoking for enhancement of flavor and to extends its shelf life. Some examples of cured meats are sausage, bacon, salami, ham, canned meat, dry spicy meat, meat pickles, kebab, meatballs, meat patty, etc. The cured meat has a long shelf-life compared to fresh and raw meat however they are not immune to spoilage. The bacterial spoilage causing organisms in processed and cured meats are lactic acid bacteria (such as Lactobacillus sake, Lactobacillus curvatus, Leuconostoc gelidium, Leuconostoc carnosum, Leuconostoc mesenteroides), Acinetobacter, Bacillus, Micrococcus, Serratia, and Staphylococcus. The spoilage causing mold found in cured meat includes Aspergillus, Penicillium, Rhizopus, and Thamnidium The spoilage causing yeast found in cured meat includes Candida, Debaryomyces, Torula, Torulopsis, and Trichosporon. Other spoilage causing microorganism found in cured meats includes Clostridium spp, Hafnia spp, Weisella spp, Shewanella spp, Pseudomonas spp, Enterococcus spp, etc. The pathogenic microorganisms found in cured meat include Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, Clostridium botulinum, and Toxoplasma gondii. Microbial growth in cured meat can result in slime formation, structural components degradation, decrease in water holding capacity, off odors, and texture and changes in appearances. Microbial Spoilage of meat Spoilage of meat under aerobic conditions: Bacterial spoilage of meat: Surface spoilage - It is caused by Pseudomonas, Acenatobacter, Streptococcus, Leuconostoc, Bacillus and Micrococcus. Temperature and available moisture influence type of microorganisms causing slime. Change in color of meat - Red color of meat may be changed into green, brown or grey due to production of oxidising agent, H2S, etc. by microorganisms. For example, Lactobacillus and Leuconostoc cause greening of sausage. Change in fat - Fat of meat may become rancid due to lipase producing microorganisms such as Pseudomonas and Achromobacter. Surface color due to pigmented bacteria - Serratia marcescens give red spots. Pseudomonas syncyanea give blue color, Chromobacterium lividum gives greenish blue to brownish black color, Flavobacterium give yellow color. Phosphorescence - It is caused by luminous bacteria e.g. Photobacterium growing on surface of meat. Off odors and off taste - Undesirable odor and taste called taint are caused by many bacteria due to production of volatile acids such as formic acid, acetic acid, butyric acid etc. Actinomycetes give musty or earthy flavor. Fungal Spoilage of Meat: Stickiness - Many molds grow on surface of meat and make it sticky to touch. Whiskers - When meat is kept at temperature near freezing, mold grow slowly without sporulation on surface producing while cottony growth. It may be caused by Thamnidium, Mucor mucedo, Mucor racemosus etc. - Black spot: It is caused by Cladosporium herbarum. - White spot: It is caused by Sporotrichum carnis. - Green spot: It is caused by Penicillium species. Change in fat: Many molds produce lipase and cause hydrolytic rancidity of fat. Off odor and off taste: Many molds give musty flavor to meat in the vicinity of their growth. By yeast: Under aerobic condition, yeast grow on surface of meat causing sliminess, rancidity of fat, off odor and taste and discolorations like white, pink, brown spots. Spoilage of meat under anaerobic conditions: Souring - It is caused by formic acid, acetic acid, butyric acid, propionic acid, higher fatty acids and other organic acids. E.g. lactic acid produced by bacteria. Souring may also be caused by foods own enzyme. Putrefaction - It refers to the anaerobic decomposition of protein with production of offensive smelling compounds such as H2S, mercapatans, indole, skatole etc. It is usually caused by Clostridium species but species of Pseudomonas proteus and Alkaligens may cause putrefaction. Taint - It refers to any undesirable odor or taste. Spoilage Of Different Types Of Meat Products: Fresh beef: Change in hemoglobin and myoglobin to cause loss of bloom and production of reddish-brown methemoglobin and metmyoglobin. White, green, yellow, greenish blue, black spots due to pigmented micro-organism's phosphorescence. Sliminess on the surface due to slime forming organism, stickiness due to mold, whiskers due to mold etc. Souring and putrefaction. pork sausage: Souring is the most common type of spoilage of refrigerated sausage. It may be caused mainly by Lactobacillus and Leuconostoc. Enclosed sausage undergoes slime formation by mold on long term storage. Colored spots also appear on surface due to pigmented organism. Spoilage of cured meat: Curing salts make meat more susceptible to gram +ve bacteria and mold than to gram -ve bacteria. Sausage: If moisture is available micrococcus and yeast form slime in the surface. With less moisture, mold may give cottony growth and colored spots. Microorganisms that produce peroxide cause greening of sausage. E.g. Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc and another catalase - ve bacteria. Spoilage of Refrigerator packaged meat: Packaging film permitting good penetration of oxygen and CO2 favor more aerobic bacteria such as Pseudomonas, Acenatobacter and Moraxella. They cause spoilage like off flavor slime and sometimes putrefaction. Film with poor gas penetration encourage lactic acid bacteria causing sourness and slime. Curing solution or pickles: Spoilage of curing solution is usually putrefactive and is caused by Vibrio, Alcoligens and Spirillum. Souring can be caused by Lactobacillus and Micrococcus. Slime is formed by Leuconostoc and Micrococcus. Factors That Affect Fish Spoilage And Deterioration Of Fish Spoilage is the result of a series of changes brought about in the dead fish mainly due to enzyme and bacterial action. It starts in the fish as soon as the fish dies when caught. In areas where temperature is high, fish spoil within 15-20 hours depending on the species and the method of capture. Fish is extremely perishable. It spoils easily. "Spoilage" can be defined as a change in fish or fish products that renders them less acceptable, unacceptable or unsafe for human consumption. Fish undergoing spoilage has one or more of the following signs: slime formation; discoloration; changes in texture; off-odors; off-flavors and gas production. Microbiological spoilage Live fish is normally considered to be sterile, but microorganisms are found on all the outer surfaces (skin and gills) and in the alimentary tract of live and newly caught fish in varying numbers. A normal range of 102-107 cfu (colony forming units)/cm2 on the skin and between 103 and 109 cfu/g in the gills and intestines has been observed. Chemical oxidation Chemical spoilage processes are changes taking place in the lipid fraction of the fish. Lipids are oxidized to peroxides, aldehydes, ketones and lower aliphatic acids. The hydro-peroxides are tasteless but can cause brown and yellow discoloration of the fish tissue. Autolytic spoilage As fish dies, its enzymatic activity doesn't stop immediately but continues resulting in proteolytic changes that are responsible for early quality loss in fresh fish. The more these enzymes get in contact with the fish's flesh the greater the spoilage. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is broken down through a series of products such as adenosine diphosphate (ADP), inosine monophosphate (IMP), inosine and hypoxant