Project Quality Management PDF

# 10.Project Quality Management ## Project Quality Management Creating and following policies and procedures to ensure that a project meets the defined needs it was intended to meet from the customer’s perspective. ## What Is Project Quality? - The International Organization for Standardization (I...

# 10.Project Quality Management ## Project Quality Management Creating and following policies and procedures to ensure that a project meets the defined needs it was intended to meet from the customer’s perspective. ## What Is Project Quality? - The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines **quality** as “the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfils requirements” (ISO9000:2000) - Other experts define **quality** based on: - **Conformance to requirements**: The project’s processes and products meet written specifications - **Fitness for use**: A product can be used as it was intended ## Why Quality Management? - Projects or products with unnecessary features can be too expensive to meet the business need - **Prevention** is much cheaper than **inspection**, build quality in early to minimize costs/maximize quality ## How Do We Manage Quality? - **Three processes** - **Plan Quality** - What is quality and how will we ensure it? - **Perform Quality Assurance** - Are we following the quality standards? - **Perform Quality Control** - Are we meeting the quality standards? ## Plan Quality | Inputs | Tools & Techniques | Outputs | |---------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Scope Baseline | Cost-benefit analysis | Quality Management Plan | | Stakeholder Register | Cost of quality | Quality Metrics | | Cost Performance Baseline | Control charts | Quality Checklists | | Schedule Baseline | Benchmarking | Process Improvement Plan | | Risk Register | Design of experiments | Project document updates | | Enterprise Environmental Factors | Statistical sampling | | | Organizational Process Assets | Flowcharting | | | | Proprietary quality management methodologies | | | | Additional quality planning tools | | - **Cost of Quality** - Evaluating the cost of conformance with the cost of nonconformance to reach a balance. Includes; - **Prevention Costs** - **Appraisal Costs** - **Failure Costs** ### Deming’s Costs of Quality | **Cost of Conformance** | **Cost of Non Conformance** | |-----------------------------|------------------------------| | Quality training | Rework | | Studies | Scrap | | Surveys | Inventory Costs | | | Warranty Costs | | | | **Conformance**: delivering products that meet requirements and fitness for use *** 85% of the costs of quality are the direct responsibility of management - Deming ## Quality Planning Terms - **Gold Plating** - Giving the customer extras that do not add value to the project - **Marginal Analysis** - The point where the incremental revenue from an improvement equals the cost to implement it - **Kaizen** - Continuous improvement process to reduce costs and promote consistency - **ISO 9000** - International standard to ensure that companies have quality procedures and that they follow them ## Perform Quality Assurance | Inputs | Tools & Techniques | Outputs | |---------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Project Management Plan | Plan quality and perform quality control tools and techniques | Organizational Process Assets Updates | | Quality Metrics | Quality audits | Change Requests | | Work Performance Information | Process analysis | Project Management Plan Updates | | Quality Control Measurements | | Project Document Updates | ## Performing Quality Assurance - Quality assurance includes all the activities related to satisfying the relevant quality standards for a project - Another goal of quality assurance is continuous quality improvement - **Benchmarking** generates ideas for quality improvements by comparing specific project practices or product characteristics to those of other projects or products within or outside the performing organization - A **quality audit** is a structured review of specific quality management activities that help identify lessons learned that could improve performance on current or future projects ## Perform Quality Control | Inputs | Tools & Techniques | Outputs | |---------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Project Management Plan | Cause and effect diagram | Quality Control Measurements | | Quality Metrics | Control charts | Validated Changes | | Quality Checklists | Flowcharting | Validated Deliverables | | Work Performance Measurements | Histogram | Organizational Process Assets Updates | | Approved Change Requests | Pareto Chart | Change Requests | | Deliverables | Run chart | Project Management Plan Updates | | Organizational Process Assets | Scatter diagram | Project Document Updates | | | Statistical sampling | | | | Inspection | | | | Approved change requests review | | ## Testing - Many IT professionals think of testing as a stage that comes near the end of IT product development - Testing should be done during almost every phase of the IT product development life cycle ## Testing Tasks in the Software Development Life Cycle - **Initiate Project** - **Feasibility** - **Project Planning** - **Detailed Requirements** - **Product Selection** - **System Design** - **Development** - **Unit Design** - **Code** - **Unit Test** - **Integration Test** - **System Test** - **User Acceptance Test** - **Implementation** - **Post Implementation** - **Detailed Architecture** - **Build Operating Environment** - **Physical Database Design** - **Testing Tasks** ## Types of Tests - A **unit test** is done to test each individual component (often a program) to ensure it is as defect free as possible - **Integration testing** occurs between unit and system testing to test functionally grouped components - **System testing** tests the entire system as one entity - **User acceptance testing** is an independent test performed by the end user prior to accepting the delivered system ## More Reading Material ## Statistics Terms Review - **Mutually Exclusive** - Two events that cannot both occur in a single trial - **Statistical Independence** - Probability of one event occurring does not affect the probability of another event occurring - **Probability** - The likelihood that something will occur (usually expressed in percent) ## Normal Distribution - **Remember**: - +/- **1 σ** = 68.26% - +/- **2 σ** = 95.46% - +/- **3 σ** = 99.73% - +/- **6 σ** = 99.99% ## Scope Aspects of IT Projects - **Functionality** is the degree to which a system performs its intended function - **Features** are the system's special characteristics that appeal to users - **System outputs** are the screens and reports the system generates - **Performance** addresses how well a product or service performs the customer's intended use - **Reliability** is the ability of a product or service to perform as expected under normal conditions - **Maintainability** addresses the ease of performing maintenance on a product ## Who's Responsible for the Quality of Projects? - **Project managers** are ultimately responsible for quality management on their projects - Several organizations and references can help project managers and their teams understand quality - International Organization for Standardization (www.iso.org) - IEEE (www.ieee.org) ## Cause-and-Effect Diagrams - **Cause-and-effect diagrams** trace complaints about quality problems back to the responsible production operations - They help you find the root cause of a problem - Also known as **fishbone** or **Ishikawa** diagrams ## Sample Cause-and-Effect Diagram - **Problem: Users cannot get into system** - **Training** - User did not check box to save password - User keeps forgetting password - **Software** - **System Hardware** - **User's Hardware** - Not enough memory - Not enough hard disk storage - Processor too slow - **User did not reset password** ## Quality Control Charts - A **control chart** is a graphic display of data that illustrates the results of a process over time - The main use of control charts is to prevent defects, rather than to detect or reject them - **Quality control charts** allow you to determine whether a process is in control or out of control - When a process is in control, any variations in the results of the process are created by random events; processes that are in control do not need to be adjusted - When a process is out of control, variations in the results of the process are caused by non-random events; you need to identify the causes of those non-random events and adjust the process to correct or eliminate them ## The Seven Run Rule - You can use quality control charts and the seven run rule to look for patterns in data - The **seven run rule** states that if seven data points in a row are all below the mean, above the mean, or are all increasing or decreasing, then the process needs to be examined for non-random problems ## Sample Quality Control Chart - **Upper Spec Limit 12.10** - **Upper Control Limit 12.09** - **Lower Control Limit 11.91** - **Lower Spec Limit 11.90** - **Denotes violation of 7 run rule** ## Check Sheet - A **check sheet** is used to collect and analyze data - It is sometimes called a **tally sheet** or **checklist**, depending on its format - In the example below, most complaints arrive via text message, and there are more complaints on Monday and Tuesday than on other days of the week - This information might be useful in improving the process for handling complaints ## Sample Check Sheet | Source | Monday | Tuesday | Wednesday | Thursday | Friday | Saturday | Sunday | Total | |-------------|--------|---------|------------|----------|-------|----------|--------|-------| | Email | ||||||||| 12 | | Text | ||||||||| 29 | | Phone call | ||||||||| 8 | | **Total** | **11** | **10** | **8** | **6** | **7** | **3** | **4** | **49** | ## Scatter Diagram - A **scatter diagram** helps to show if there is a relationship between two variables - The closer data points are to a diagonal line, the more closely the two variables are related ## Sample Scatter Diagram ## Histograms - A **histogram** is a bar graph of a distribution of variables - Each bar represents an attribute or characteristic of a problem or situation, and the height of the bar represents its frequency ## Sample Histogram ## Pareto Charts - A **Pareto chart** is a histogram that can help you identify and prioritize problem areas - **Pareto analysis** is also called the 80-20 rule, meaning that 80 percent of problems are often due to 20 percent of the causes ## Sample Pareto Chart ## Flowcharts - **Flowcharts** are graphic displays of the logic and flow of processes that help you analyze how problems occur and how processes can be improved - They show activities, decision points, and the order of how information is processed ## Sample Flowchart ## Run Charts - A technique that shows data from a variety of sources to see if a pattern emerges - A **run chart** displays the history and pattern of variation of a process over time. - You can use run charts to perform trend analysis and forecast future outcomes based on historical results ## Sample Run Chart ## Statistical Sampling - **Statistical sampling** involves choosing part of a population of interest for inspection - The size of a sample depends on how representative you want the sample to be - Be sure to consult with an expert when using statistical analysis ## Six Sigma - **Six Sigma** is "a comprehensive and flexible system for achieving, sustaining, and maximizing business success. Six Sigma is uniquely driven by close understanding of customer needs, disciplined use of facts, data, and statistical analysis, and diligent attention to managing, improving, and reinventing business processes” ## Basic Information on Six Sigma - The target for perfection is the achievement of no more than **3.4 defects per million opportunities** - The principles can apply to a wide variety of processes - Six Sigma projects normally follow a five-phase improvement process called **DMAIC** ## DMAIC - **DMAIC** is a systematic, closed-loop process for continued improvement that is scientific and fact based - DMAIC stands for: - **Define**: Define the problem/opportunity, process, and customer requirements - **Measure**: Define measures, then collect, compile, and display data - **Analyze**: Scrutinize process details to find improvement opportunities - **Improve**: Generate solutions and ideas for improving the problem - **Control**: Track and verify the stability of the improvements and the predictability of the solution ## How is Six Sigma Quality Control Unique? - It requires an organization-wide commitment. - Six Sigma organizations have the ability and willingness to adopt contrary objectives, such as reducing errors and getting things done faster - It is an operating philosophy that is customer focused and strives to drive out waste, raise levels of quality, and improve financial performance at breakthrough levels ## Six Sigma and Project Management - Joseph M. Juran stated, “All improvement takes place project by project, and in no other way" - It’s important to select projects carefully and apply higher quality where it makes sense; companies that use Six Sigma do not always boost their stock values - As Mikel Harry puts it, “I could genetically engineer a Six Sigma goat, but if a rodeo is the marketplace, people are still going to buy a Four Sigma horse."** - Six Sigma projects must focus on a quality problem or gap between the current and desired performance and not have a clearly understood problem or a predetermined solution ## Six Sigma and Statistics - The term **sigma** means standard deviation - **Standard deviation** measures how much variation exists in a distribution of data - **Standard deviation** is a key factor in determining the acceptable number of defective units found in a population - Six Sigma projects strive for no more than 3.4 defects per million opportunities, yet this number is confusing to many statisticians ## Six Sigma Uses a Conversion Table - Using a normal curve, if a process is at six sigma, there would be no more than two defective units per billion produced. - Six Sigma uses a scoring system that accounts for time, an important factor in determining process variations - **Yield** represents the number of units handled correctly through the process steps - A **defect** is any instance where the product or service fails to meet customer requirements. - There can be several opportunities to have a defect ## Normal Distribution and Standard Deviation ## Sigma and Defective Units | Specification Range (in ± Sigmas) | Percent of Population within Range | Defective Units per Billion | |---------------------------------------|---------------------------------------|-----------------------------| | 1 | 68.27 | 317,300,000 | | 2 | 95.45 | 45,400,000 | | 3 | 99.73 | 2,700,000 | | 4 | 99.9937 | 63,000 | | 5 | 99.999943 | 57 | | 6 | 99.9999998 | 2 | ## Six 9s of Quality - **Six 9s of quality** is a measure of quality control equal to 1 fault in 1 million opportunities - In the telecommunications industry, it means 99.9999 percent service availability or 30 seconds of down time a year - This level of quality has also been stated as the target goal for the number of errors in a communications circuit, system failures, or errors in lines of code ## Modern Quality Management - Modern quality management: - Requires customer satisfaction - Prefers prevention to inspection - Recognizes management responsibility for quality - Noteworthy quality experts include Deming, Juran, Crosby, Ishikawa, Taguchi, and Feigenbaum ## ISO Standards - **ISO 9000** is a quality system standard that: - Is a three-part, continuous cycle of planning, controlling, and documenting quality in an organization - Provides minimum requirements needed for an organization to meet its quality certification standards - Helps organizations around the world reduce costs and improve customer satisfaction ## Improving Information Technology Project Quality - Several suggestions for improving quality for IT projects include: - Establish leadership that promotes quality - Understand the cost of quality - Focus on organizational influences and workplace factors that affect quality - Follow maturity models ## The Cost of Quality - The **cost of quality** is the cost of conformance plus the cost of nonconformance - **Conformance** means delivering products that meet requirements and fitness for use - **Cost of nonconformance** means taking responsibility for failures or not meeting quality expectations. - A study reported that software bugs cost the U.S. economy $59.6 billion each year and that one third of the bugs could be eliminated by an improved testing infrastructure ## Five Cost Categories Related to Quality - **Prevention cost**: Cost of planning and executing a project so it is error-free or within an acceptable error range - **Appraisal cost**: Cost of evaluating processes and their outputs to ensure quality - **Internal failure cost**: Cost incurred to correct an identified defect before the customer receives the product. - **External failure cost**: Cost that relates to all errors not detected and corrected before delivery to the customer - **Measurement and test equipment costs**: Capital cost of equipment used to perform prevention and appraisal activities ## Maturity Models - **Maturity models** are frameworks for helping organizations improve their processes and systems - The **Software Quality Function Deployment Model** focuses on defining user requirements and planning software projects - The Software Engineering Institute’s **Capability Maturity Model Integration** is a process improvement approach that provides organizations with the essential elements of effective processes ## CMMI Levels - CMMI levels, from lowest to highest, are: - Incomplete - Performed - Managed - Defined - Quantitatively Managed - Optimizing - Companies may not get to bid on government projects unless they have a CMMI Level 3 ## PMI's Maturity Model - PMI released the **Organizational Project Management Maturity Model (OPM3)** in December 2003 - Model is based on market research surveys sent to more than 30,000 project management professionals and incorporates 180 best practices and more than 2,400 capabilities, outcomes, and key performance indicators - Addresses standards for excellence in project, program, and portfolio management best practices and explains the capabilities necessary to achieve those best practices