Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics PDF

Society (socius = associate/companion) - a large group of OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY people who live together in a...

Society (socius = associate/companion) - a large group of OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY people who live together in an organized #1 Esperanza St., Hilltop Mansion Subdivision Lagro, Quezon City way by common interest. 0917 139 0436 – [email protected] Government - a legal institution or system made of a group of people that takes care or manages a country or a state. UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY, Politics (politika = affairs of the cities) - AND POLITICS the actions or activities concerned with 11 Humanities and Social Sciences (HUMSS) achieving and using power in a country or First Quarter a society. Cultural Identity Unit 1 – Lesson 1: Sharing of Social and Cultural Backgrounds Culture - the prevailing set of beliefs, values, customs, traditions, laws, Importance of Studying CSP and other aspects of life which bind a 1. Having knowledge and understanding of particular group of people in a society, culture, and politics develops our place or community. knowledge, understanding, skills, values, Identity - involves the distinct and attitudes to achieving social and characteristics, traits, and attributes which cultural literacy. set a particular group apart from other 2. Studying society, culture, and politics people. increases our knowledge and Cultural Identity - feeling of belonging to understanding about personal, social, and a group. In effect, it is considered as part cultural identity and gives us the desire to of a person's self-conception and self- initiate change. perception. (ex. one’s nationality, ethnicity, 3. Improve our skills to apply and evaluate religion, social class, generation, locality, social and cultural research; and enables etc.) us to communicate information, ideas and Cultural Awareness - As to cultural issues in appropriate forms to different awareness, it connotes to the ability of a audiences in a variety of contexts. person to recognize the different beliefs, 4. A thorough knowledge and understanding values and customs that someone has of the society, culture, and politics equips based on that individual's orig us with informed and responsible values Cultural Background - Cultural and attitudes towards a just society, background, on the other hand, essentially provides us with intercultural consists of the ethnic, religious, racial, understanding, makes us informed and gender, linguistic or other socioeconomic active citizens, develops in us ethical factors and values that shape an research practices, and inculcates in us a individual‘s upbringing. The cultural lifelong learning. background can be shaped at the family, societal or organizational level. Definitions of Culture, Society, and Politics A common distinguishing factor of a person‘s cultural background is gender Culture (cultura = cultivate) - the and sexuality. prevailing set of beliefs, values, customs, Gender - refers to the array of socially traditions, laws, and other aspects of life constructed roles and relationships, which bind a particular group of people in personality traits, attitudes, behaviors, a particular place or community. values, relative power, and influence that 2 Types of Cultures: society ascribes to the two sexes on a differential basis. a. Material - This is a kind of culture that Biological Sex - determined by genetic focuses on the physical objects that and anatomical characteristics, gender is represent a particular culture. (ex. tools, an acquired identity that is learned, clothing, art, buildings, etc.) changes over time, and varies widely b. Nonmaterial - This is a kind of culture that within and across cultures. Gender is focuses on creations and abstract ideas relational and refers not simply to women that are not embodied in physical objects. or men but to the relationship between (ex. languages, rituals, religion, laws, them. values, etc.) 1  Sexuality - Sexuality is the state of being by birth or naturalization. It constitutes a either masculine or feminine. legal relationship between an individual SOGIE - Sexual orientation, gender person and a state. indentity, gender expression LGBTQIA+ - Lesbian, gay, bisexual, Unit 1 – Lesson 2: Observations on Social, transgender, queer, intersex, asexual. Political, and Cultural Behavior and Socio-economic status - a personal or Phenomena family's financial and social esteem on the basis of income, education, and Cultural Behavior and Phenomena occupation. Food Taboos - foods being forbidden or Socio-economic class - refers to the are prohibited as nourishment. status of every individual from the By religion or religious practice. sociological and economic points of view. By laws. Economic status - means a person‘s By dietary or sanitary rules. place in the society‘s economic On extraordinary occasions, such stratification based on wealth, property, as childbirth, pregnancy, etc. and total assets. Food Taboos in the Philippines Social Status - a person‘s standing or rank in the social ladder of stratification 1. Any dish that has dog or cat meat. based on prestige, power, popularity, etc. Republic Act No. 8485, AN ACT TO PROMOTE ANIMAL WELFARE IN THE PHILIPPINES, OTHERWISE KNOWN AS “THE ANIMAL WELFARE ACT OF 1998” declares that it is completely illegal to slaughter a dog or cat for personal trade, or slaughtering a dog or cat for commercial trade and consumption. 2. Any meat of creatures considered as Ethnicity - a condition in which a social imperiled (endangered). group belongs to a common national or Meat of monkeys, tortoise cultural tradition. The adjective ethnic (pawikan), screen reptiles relates to large groups of people who (bayawak), or uncommon have certain racial, cultural, religious, or feathered creatures are other traits in common. unsatisfactory to eat either by open The Philippines is inhabited by different benchmarks or by law. ethno-linguistic groups, the majority of whose own languages are Polynesian in 3. Any nourishment that damages human origin. Many of these groups converted to respect since they are not any longer Christianity, particularly the lowland- worthy for human utilization by coastal groups, and adopted many foreign common sense. elements of culture. Ethno-linguistic (example: double-dead meat or groups include the Ivatans, Ilocanos, botcha, pagpag, etc) Pangasinenses, Kapampangans, 4. Other dishes within the Philippines Tagalogs, Bicolanos, Visayans which are prevalent to many but are (Masbateños, Hiligaynons/Ilonggos, denied to others on the reason of Cebuanos, Boholanos, Warays and devout convictions. Surigaonons) Maranaos, Subanons and Muslims are not allowed to eat Zamboangueños. pork, but Christians can. Ethnicity refers to the identification of a Members of the INC may eat pork group based on a perceived cultural but not pig’s blood. distinctiveness that makes the group into Protestants also don’t eat pork. a “people.” These contrasts among individuals of Race - refers to a category of people who society must be recognized and regarded share certain inherited physical as ordered by the 1987 Philippine characteristics. Constitution Article III Section 5 Nationality - refers to the status of vouching religious freedom and the belonging to a particular nation, whether liberty to exercise it. 2  SECTION 5, Article III of our Bill of At the turn of the 20th century, world-wide Rights states, “No law shall be made financial, social, and political changes respecting an establishment of religion or happened in numerous countries in prohibiting the free exercise thereof. The complex ways. These changes include free exercise and enjoyment of religious population explosion, international profession and worship, without migrations, and other social changes discrimination or preference, shall forever influencing nearly all segments of be allowed. No religious test shall be society. required for the exercise of civil or political Examples of some trends in technologies: rights.” Texting Technology Standby (Istambay) Phenomenon - Selfie Phenomenon Such description moreover recommends the Filipino terms “paglalakwatsa” Unit 1 – Lesson 3: Nature & Definition of (traipsing), “taong tamad” (sluggish Anthropology, Political Science, and individual), and “di ginagamit” (not being Sociology utilized) as synonymous to istambay. Nature and Scope of Sociology Political Behavior and Phenomena Sociology - deals with the study of Political Dynasty - usually refers to society and social interactions taking families whose individuals are locked in in place. It also deals with the origin, politics, and whose family members are evolution, and development of human within the Philippine political structure society. since time immemorial. Father of Sociology: August Comte Sec. 26, Article II Declaration of Areas of Sociology Principles and State Policies, 1987 Philippine Constitution, states that "the 1. Social Organization - includes the study State shall guarantee equal access to of social groups, social institutions, social opportunities for public service and stratification, mobility, ethnic relations, and prohibit political dynasties as may be bureaucracy. provided by law'. 2. Social Psychology - tackles human Philippine Elections behavior or nature as a result of group life, The president, vice-president, and personality formation, social attitude and the senators are elected in a collective behavior. national or popular election and 3. Social Change - deals with the study of serve for a six-year term. changes in society and culture, and the The members of the house of factors resulting from such change. representatives, and the local 4. Social Organization and government officials, namely: Disorganization - study the emergence of governors, vice-governors, societies, their structural formation and the members of the provincial board, ways they are strengthened. (current mayors, vice-mayors, the social issues) city/municipal councilors are 5. Human Ecology - studies the behavior of elected for a term of three years a given population and its relationship to and are eligible for re-election. present social institutions. During election in the Philippines, 6. Population - is concerned with population the common phrase, in the size, composition, change and quality and vernacular, is ―kaya siya nanalo on how they influence the economic, kasi nandaya siya; kaya siya political and social systems. natalo kasi dinaya siya. 7. Sociological Theory and Method - is Political Turncoatism - party switching or concerned with the application of the when a person shifts allegiance from one results of sociological studies to solve political party to another. various human problems. As a common adage goes, ―In politics, Nature and Scope of Anthropology there are no permanent friends/allies, only permanent selfish interests. Anthropology - the study of human‘s past and present. Its goal is to describe and Social Behavior and Phenomena explain human variation or the observed similarities and differences in people through time and across space. Father of Anthropology: Franz Boas 3 Major Branches of Anthropology positive research, unlike normative 1. Cultural Anthropology - studies human research. cultures, beliefs, ideas, technologies, economies, practices, values, and other Unit 2 – Lesson 1: Society spheres of social and rational A society is a group of people interacting organization. with each other and having a common 2. Physical Anthropology - deals with the culture; sharing common geographical or biological and behavioral aspects of territorial domains, and having relatively human beings. It focuses on their common aspirations. relationships to nonhuman primates and Theories on human society their extinct hominid ancestors. In his Republic Plato (427-347 BC) laid 3. Archaeology - studies both the ancient his standards for an ideal society ruled by and recent past of humans through the philosopher-kings assisted by equally material remains, such as artifacts, fossils and intellectually gifted “guardians.” and bone fragments. In his work Politics Aristotle (384-322 BC) 4. Linguistic Anthropology - studies the stated that man is self-sufficient and that relations between language and culture in those who are unable to live in society and relation to human biology, human have no needs in life must be either reasoning and human language. “beasts” or “gods.” 5. Applied Anthropology - deals with the According to St. Augustine (354-430 AD) application of anthropological facts, as stated in his City of God he described perspectives, theories, and procedures in society’s ultimate pilgrimage towards identifying, assessing, and solving social the kingdom of God which is closely problems. identified with the church, the community that worshipped God. Nature and Scope of Political Science In his masterpiece Utopia, (1516), Sir Political Science - deals with the study of Thomas More (1468-1535) coined the the state and government. It is concerned word "utopia" that refers to the ideal, about politics and policies of the imaginary island nation whose political government. system he described. Father of Political Science: Aristotle Types of societies Major Subdivisions of Political Science Pre-industrial societies - During the pre- industrial society, the main economic 1. Political Theory - focuses on the ideas of activity is food production carried out classical thinkers, such as Aristotle, through the utilization of human and Niccolò Machiavelli, Cicero, and Plato animal labor. Particularly, these among others. societies are subdivided according to 2. Comparative Politics - deals with the their level of technology and their incisive evaluation and comparison of the METHOD OF SUBSISTENCE – the ways doctrines of various constitutions, of by which humans apply technology to political actors, legislature and other allied meet their own needs. These are the fields. hunting and gathering societies, pastoral 3. Public Administration - focuses on the societies, horticultural societies, implementation of government policies, agricultural societies, and feudal societies. the academic disciplines involved and the Hunting and gathering society principles governing civil servants working > Nomadic, migrating in search for in the government. food, water and shelter. 4. International Relations - delve on nation- > Invented the first tools, including state‘s interactions including simple weapons. intergovernmental and transnational > Learned how to make use of fire. organizations. > Lived in clans 5. Law - governs the relationships between > Created cave art individuals and the government, and the > (In the Philippine context: relationships of individuals among Hydraulic Societies) themselves directly affecting society. Pastoral society 6. Political Methodology - focuses on the > Method of subsistence: quantitative methods used in the study of Patoralism politics combining Statistics, Mathematics, and formal theory. It is often used in 4  > Depend oon domesticated herd Cultural and liberal growth economy of animals to meet their need for Shift to money-based economy food. Horticultural society Unit 2 – Lesson 2: Culture > Method of subsistence: raising Culture is "that complex whole which fruits and vegetables includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, > Some practice slashand-burn laws, customs and any other capabilities method or kaingin system. and habits acquired by man as a member Agrarian society of society." (Edward B. Tylor) > Agricultural revolution – The Cambridge English Dictionary states technological changes occurred that culture is "the way of life, especially leading to extensive cultivation of the general customs and beliefs, of a crops and raising of farm animals. particular group of people at a particular > Larger population time." > Trade centers emerged from What is not cultural? - Even though greater surplus culture is all about man, it has nothing to > Degree of social stratification do with his biological characteristics or his appeared. natural instincts. In all, what culture is not Feudal society is that it does not have anything to do with > Based on ownership of land. nature. The tree, the animals, the sky, sun, moon, stars are therefore not cultural. However, once man thinks about nature and even does things to it, create or alter it, improve or destroy it, that thought or act becomes cultural. Characteristics of culture Culture is learned - The different habits, skills, values and knowledge are acquired or learned in the course of a person’s life. This is what we call enculturation, the acquisition of knowledge, skills, attitudes, Industrial societies - New economic and values that enable men to become system – CAPITALISM - emerged (15th - active members of their communities. 16th century) that replaced feudalism. How culture is learned Industrial societies which rely heavily on Through language and symbols machines powered by fuels in the formal, informal, and technical production of goods became dramatically learning increased and efficient. The increased Enculturation efficiency of production of the industrial Acculturation revolution produced an even greater Socialization surplus than before. Hence, the surplus was not just agricultural goods but also manufactured goods. Post-industrial societies - More advanced societies, called post-industrial societies, dominated by information, services, and high technology, surfaced. These hallmarks of these societies were beyond the production of goods. Advanced industrial societies are shifting toward an increase in service sectors over manufacturing and production. These service industries have been used in government, research, education, health, sales, law, and banking and in almost all sectors of society. Modern society - Products are sold in markets in large quantities 5  Culture is transmitted - Culture within a courses of action or decisions he has to social group is transmitted to succeeding take. Values are a reflection of a person’s generations through imitation, instruction sense of right and wrong. A person’s and example. Cultural transmission is values sociologically influence his the process through which cultural attitudes and behavior. elements, in the form of attitudes, values, Norms - Norms are society’s standard beliefs, and behavioral scripts, are passed of morality, conduct, propriety, ethics, onto and taught to individuals and groups and legality. Norms vary according to Culture is adaptive - All culture changes. age, gender, religion, politics, economics, Changes in the environment are caused ethnicity, or race of the group. by inventions and discoveries. Man is Folkways - Folkways are fairly weak capable of adjusting to his environment. forms of norms, whose violation is Adaptation is the process of change in generally not considered serious within a response to a new environment. It is one particular culture. They are the habits, component of acculturation, which relates customs, and repetitive patterns of to the change in a group’s culture or the behavior. (No formal punishment, but change in individual psychology in disapproval from others) response to a new environment or other Ideas - Ideas comprise man’s concepts of factors. his physical, social and cultural world as Culture is gratifying - Culture provides manifested in people’s beliefs and values. satisfaction for man’s biological and socio- Knowledge - Knowledge can natural, cultural needs, foods, clothing, and shelter supernatural, magical or technical. These and for various relationships with other are the body of facts and beliefs that individuals and groups. Culture provides people accumulate over time. proper opportunities for the satisfaction of Perspectives/Approaches in the study of our needs and desires. culture and society Culture is symbolic - Through culture Symbolic Interactionism - Symbolic man can communicate with other people interactionism is a theoretical perspective using language. Symbols must be that examines the way participants in the understood by all to be an effective tool of socialization choose and agree on the communication; to allow people to develop meaning of symbols. This perspective complex thoughts and to exchange those holds that humans are symbol- thoughts with others. Language and other manipulating and are capable of creative forms of symbolic communication, like art, behavior. enable people to create, explain, and It is a perspective that sees society record new ideas and information. as the product of shared symbols, Main types of culture such as language. The social world is therefore constructed by the meanings that individuals attach to events and social interactions, and these symbols are transmitted across the generations through language. Symbolic interaction theory analyzes society by addressing the subjective meanings that people impose on objects, events, and behaviors. Elements of non-material culture Functionalism - presupposes that every Beliefs - Beliefs are man’s perception aspect of society is interdependent and about the reality of things and are shared contributes to the total functioning of ideas about how the world and his society. To The government, the school environment operate. They are reflective and the family are significant social of highly valued feelings about the world in institutions which proper functioning would which they live. Beliefs are influenced by make life in the society meaningful and emotions, attitudes, values, ideology, and productive. religion. Conflict Theory - Conflict is another Values - Values refer to the broad theoretical perspective, which originated preferences of person on the appropriate primarily out of Karl Marx's writings on 6  class struggles, presents society in a 4. Government - Governments have the different light than do the functionalist and power to make, interpret, and enforce the symbolic interactionist perspectives. rules and decisions that determine how Conflict theorists note that unequal groups countries are run. A distinguishing aspect usually have conflicting values and of culture is the clothing or costume. agendas, causing them to compete Costume is the distinctive style of dress against one another. This constant of an individual or group that reflects their competition between groups forms the class, gender, profession, ethnicity, or basis for the ever‐changing nature of nationality. society. 5. Religion - a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things. Its structural features include a body of ideas, beliefs, doctrines, rituals, and ceremonies. 6. Education - the process of teaching or learning, is oftentimes associated with a place or a building where boys and girls go almost every day carrying books, notebooks in order to attend classes and learn from the teachers. (informal, formal, acculturation, enculturation) Unit 2 – Lesson 4: Ethnocentrism and Relativism The following are the primary causes of cultural similarities. 1. Biological Similarities - This means that all people in the world have the same biological needs, namely food, clothing, shelter, and health care. 2. Necessary prerequisites for social Dramaturgical Perspective - being - Society must fulfil some Dramaturgical perspective is an requirements in order to function, such as interactionist perspective that analyzes replacing members, teaching new human behavior in much the same way members to participate, and the need to that a person would analyze the have participation in production and presentation of a play to the audience. distribution. Ethnomethology - Ethnomethodology is 3. Physical Unity of Human Kind - All a socio-cultural perspective which human beings are alike in having similar emphasizes the process of interaction that ranges of emotion – the need for love, uses interpersonal techniques to create security, and language. situational impressions and the 4. Geographical Environment - The importance of perceptions of consensus geographical environment is characterized among actors. (ex. “How are you?”, High by certain limitations such as limited food, five sign) limited source of energy, and other delimiting factors of the people’s Unit 2 – Lesson 3: Aspects of Culture environment. The following are the aspects of culture. The following are the factors attributed to 1. Art - is one aspect of culture that includes cultural diversity. the expression or application of human 1. Though men all over the world have the creative skill and imagination. (ex. Art as same biological needs, they differ in ways reflection of social reality: songs, tattoos, in meeting them. Each culture adapts to etc.) its environment. 2. Language - a system of communication 2. Differences in geographical characteristics used by a particular society. (ex. English, like climate, topography, or soil condition. Language Barrier) 3. The absence or presence of natural 3. Food - is any substance consumed to resources. provide nutritional support for the body. 7 Orientations in Viewing other Cultures. Biological and Cultural Evolution 1. Ethnocentrism - A feeling of superiority towards one’s own group over other groups. This one-sided vision often results in failing to adequately understand cultures that are different from one’s own, and in value judgments of preference and thought of superiority of one’s in-group. Thus, ethnocentrism, the extreme preferential feeling which the individual has for his own group; that one’s group is more important than any other. 2. Cultural relativism - a relatively neutral cultural perspective. This is the principle of regarding the beliefs, values, and practices of a culture from the viewpoint of that culture itself. In sociology, the principle is sometimes practiced to avoid cultural bias, as well as to avoid looking with arrogance at another culture by the standards of one's own culture. Importance of Preserving our Filipino Culture True Filipino identity and culture will last Technological advancements endangered cultures National pride Tourism and economy Strong international influences (e.g KPOP) Unit 3 – Lesson 1: Human Biocultural and Social Evolution Anthropology Anthropology – deals with the study of the origin, evolution, and development of the human species and is concerned with all peoples everywhere, from those alive today, back to those who lived in the remote past. It is concerned with many aspects of life, from the shapes of their teeth, how they found and produced food, built their settlements, and how they reared and educated their children. Physical Anthropology – deals with the biological origins and evolution of man, and the variations of the human species and their physical characteristics, including the study of the different races. It is also referred to as biological anthropology. 8 9  Creationism: Contrary to Darwin’s Evolution Theory is the age-old belief in the Creation Story. According to Book of Genesis in the Old Testament, God created the Earth, the firmament and everything therein. Under the Judeo- Christian faith and traditions, it asserted that God literally created man on the sixth day. And on the seventh day God rested. There are skeptics, however, who believed that the creation story was symbolic. Whichever side one believes is a matter of religious belief and orientation. Unit 3 – Lesson 2: Cultural and Socio- political evolution EARLY HUMANS AND THEIR CULTURE Humans are cultural beings. By culture, we mean the aggregate of the people’s ideas, beliefs, traditions, languages, arts, technology and arts that distinguishes him from animals. Early human societies, through the development of culture, began the process of overcoming the limits set by the physical environment. 1. Paleolithic Era (Old Stone Age) 2. Neolithic Era (New Stone Age) 3. Bronze age 10  occupational specialization and the development of writing. Civilizations in history had the following common particularities: 1. Intensive agricultural techniques, such as crop development and irrigation permitted a surplus of food beyond the subsistence. This allowed the sustaining of a group of population in other fields, such as administration, industry, war, science or religion, etc. 2. Those not in agriculture constituted the population of the cities. By time a government and its bureaucracy in charge of coordinating the tasks of production and protecting the whole community began to concentrate in the cities. 3. This institutionalized control of production by a “ruling” class became more complex in time and other formal social institutions such as organized religion, education, permanent army and markets and money as forms of economic exchange developed. RISE-NATION STATE The nation-state developed fairly recently. Prior to the 1500s, in Europe, the nation- state as we know it did not exist. Back then, most people did not consider themselves part of a nation; they rarely Unit 3 – Lesson 3: Early Civilization, Rise of left their village and knew little of the State, and Democratization larger world. If anything, people were more likely to identify themselves with PROGRESS TOWARDS CIVILIZATION their region or local lord. At the same The establishment of a complex form of time, the rulers of states frequently organization, the state and the had little control over their countries. development of hierarchical Instead, local feudal lords had a great deal administrative bureaucracies are the of power, and kings often had to depend central characteristics of all civilizations. on the goodwill of their subordinates to The emergence of civilization in human rule. Laws and practices varied a great history that took place in Mesopotamia, deal from one part of the country to Egypt, China and India, was another. characterized by the development of In the early modern era, a number of agriculture and sedentary way of life, monarchs began to consolidate power dated back to about 6,000 years BC. by weakening the feudal nobles and The characteristics of these early allying themselves with the emerging civilizations are: food production in commercial classes. This difficult permanent habitations, processing process sometimes required violence. metals and other natural sources, a The consolidation of power also took a division of labor in terms of long time. Kings and queens worked to bring all the people of their territories 11  under unified rule. Not surprisingly, then, rules and decisions that determine how the birth of the nation-state also saw the countries are run. The rules that first rumblings of nationalism, as governments make encompass a wide monarchs encouraged their subjects to range of human affairs, including feel loyalty toward the newly commerce, education, marriage, medical established nations. The modern, care, employment, military service, integrated nation-state became clearly religion, travel, scientific research, and established in most of Europe during the the exchange of ideas. nineteenth century. A national government—or, in some cases, a state or local government—is DEMOCRATIZATION usually given responsibility for services Democratization is a concept that that individuals or private organizations encapsulates the expansion of a set of are believed not to be able to perform well related political ideals with different themselves. The political and economic intellectual vintages that gain public systems of nations differ in many prominence during the emergence of ways, including the means of pricing capitalist modernity. Relatedly, goods and services; the sources of democratization is also a process in which capital for new ventures; government- various social groups have made claims regulated limits on profits; the on the state through protests, riots, collecting, spending, and controlling of strikes, and lobbies. The discourse of money; and the relationships of democracy has infused many struggles managers and workers to each other against monarchical absolutism, working- and to government. The political system class struggles, and the suffragette of a nation is closely intertwined with its movement. economic system, refereeing the Democratization is a process by which economic activity of individuals and democracy expands, within a state or groups at every level. across the world. Democratization, both Unit 4 – Lesson 1: Becoming a Memberof as a process and as a concept, draws Society on a long history. The intellectual origins of the concept of democracy stretch back ENCULTURATION & SOCIALIZATION to Athenian ideals of city governance and Roman republicanism. During the 1700s Enculturation is the process by which the notion that sovereignty lay with the individuals acquire the knowledge, skills, people, which emerged from ancient attitudes, and values that enable them to Greece and Rome, became coupled with become functioning members of their the modern ideologies of the societies. Socialization, on the other Enlightenment, especially liberalism and hand, is the process whereby the socialism. The emergence of modern individual‘s behaviour is modified to nation-states and capitalist social conform to the expectation of the group. relations created the conditions under which ideals of citizenship, governmental accountability, and civil society established themselves as the common sense of Europe and later the United States. In most of the world's countries, national power and authority are allocated to various individuals and groups through politics, usually by means of compromises between conflicting interests. Through politics, governments are elected or 3 LEVELS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT appointed, or, in some cases, created by armed force. Governments have the 1. The vegetative level refers to embryo power to make, interpret, and enforce the and early infancy. This is characterized by 12  preoccupation with food. The infant grabs 2. Formal sanctions may be in the nature of things and brings them directly to the getting high academic ratings, awards in mouth. The main thought of the infant is school, promotion or salary increase for survival. employees, medals or plaques of honour, 2. The animal level is characterized by certifications of merit. desires for sex and reproduction. At this APPLICATION OF SANCTIONS stage man is no different from animals in their need for food and sex. At this stage, 1. Physical sanctions: bring physical pain the socialization of man is incomplete. or pleasure. 3. The human level is considered the 2. Psychological sanctions: address the attainment of human of a personality. This feelings and emotions of a person. They implies the assimilation of behavior, can make one feel good or bad. Positive attitudes, and values the society considers psychological sanctions are found in necessary and important to the well-being compliments ribbons, badges and awards. of the group. Negative psychological sanctions are found in insults and rejection. SOCIAL NORMS STATUS AND ROLE Social norms are standards of behaviour which tell whether an action is right or Status refers to one’s position or place in wrong; appropriate or not. They represent a social group. It can be ascribed, a standardized generalizations concerning status that is assigned to an individual expected modes of behaviour. Among the from birth; or achieved, that which one norms observed by society include acquires either by choice or by force or folkways, mores and laws. through some form of competition and Folkways are customary ways of doing individual effort. things which are fairly weak forms of Role refers to the functional and dynamic norms, whose violation is generally not aspect of the status. It is the totality of considered serious within a particular cultural patterns and behaviour expected culture. They are the habits, customs, and of a particular status. repetitive patterns of behaviour. Mores are special folkways with moral FORMS OF ROLES and ethical values which are strongly held A. Role as expectation refers to the rights, and emphasized. These include customs, duties and obligations an individual has values, and behaviours that are accepted while occupying a status. by a particular group, culture, etc. Eg. B. Role as performance refers to how the Cursing in public, drug use, bullying, individual actually behaves while premarital sex, stealing. occupying the status. Laws are formalized norms enacted by C. Role conflict arises when an individual people vested with authority. These laws encounters conflicting demands from his reinforce the mores. two or more statuses. This happens when Sanctions are penalties or other means in his performance of one role; such would of enforcement used to provide incentives run counter to another role. (e.g. Student for obedience with the law, or with rules vs brother, boss vs friend) and regulations. To ensure that individuals D. Role set refers to the individual’s conform to the norms or behave in ways repertoire (list) of performances towards prescribed within society, sanctions are variety of others while he/she occupies a applied to attain the individual’s conformity given status. (e.g. Professor’s role set) and acceptance of its norms. SOCIALIZATION FOR SEX ROLES FORMS OF SANCTIONS Societies categorize their members into 1. Informal sanctions come in unfavourable males and females and each is viewed as or favourable public opinion, giving or a distinct sex or gender. Gender withdrawing of support, or gossip. differences are a function of cultural patterns which prescribe the different 13  expectations and norms of behavior for 2. Social Disorganization – cultural conflict boys and girls. suggests that deviant and criminal Society makes various types of social behaviour results when two normative control depending on the situations. In systems come into contact. member primitive societies beliefs and superstition expectations in one system differ from are sufficient enough for the control. In those of the other, thus, actions outside rural areas folkways, norms, beliefs, the dominant normative system appear customs and traditions are used as means deviant. social disorganization can also of social control, while in modern occur when adherence to cultural societies formal agencies like police, expectations do not yield anticipated army, radio, newspapers, universities are consequences. when the normative the means. system does not function, an obvious solution is to work outside the system. SOCIAL CONTROL AND TYPES OF SOCIAL 3. Labelling – the labelling theory of deviant CONTROL behaviour suggests that what defines Social control is the process whereby deviance is the action of others or by the society seeks to ensure conformity to the actors themselves. the crucial variable dominant values and norms in that here is the power of the labeller. if the society. individual or group is not powerful enough Positive and negative means: to effectively affix the deviant label on a The positive means of social person displaying out-of-the-ordinary control is through praise, prizes, behaviour, then no consequence will likely fame, respect, and promotion. The to follow. negative means include criticism, 4. Value Conflict – this theory holds that gossip, punishment, and acts are considered criminal or deviant ostracism. because they are at variance with a Formal and informal control: group’s values. there is also an Formal control is designed and assumption that what is valued by one regulated by some authority like group is not valued by another. the the government which makes laws ultimate determinant then of whether an to control order. Informal control is act is deviant or crim inal is the orientation the unwritten rules and regulation or interest of a group that is offering the characterized by informal authority definition. like criticism, sociability, and public MODES OF ADAPTATION opinion. DEVIANCE Deviance is defined as the recognized violation of cultural norms. When most of us think of deviant behaviour, we think of someone who is breaking the law or acting out in a negative manner. Deviancy, however, must not be construed in as always negative. This may be tolerated, 1. Conformist – is a person who accepts both approved or disapproved. (e.g. Vagrancy) the societal goals and the EXPLANATION FOR DEVIANT BEHAVIOR approved means to reach them. 2. Innovator – is a person who seeks to achieve 1. Social pathology – considers deviant goals by means that are not behaviour as the result of a societal approved by the society. disease which must be isolated, contained 3. Ritualist – is a person who follows the norms and treated. Biological pathology to the letter but reject or maintains that deviance results from abandon the hope of achieving societal goals. actual physical illness, malfunctions or 4. Retreatist – is a person who rejects both the deformities. societal goals and 14 institutionalized means to achieve them. Every member of the society deserves 5. Rebel – is a person who rejects both the human dignity. Human dignity refers to societal goals and the means to an individual or group's sense of self- achieve them; instead he substitutes them with respect and self-worth, physical and new goals and new means to achieve psychological integrity and empowerment. them. Moral, ethical, legal, and political discussions use the concept of dignity to CITIZENSHIP express the idea that every person has an Citizenship has been defined as innate right to be valued, respected, and “membership in a political community to receive ethical treatment. which is personal and more or less WHAT MAKES A GOOD CITIZEN? permanent in character.” It is the status or character of being a citizen. And a 1. As citizens we always think of the citizen of a given state or country is one promotion of the common good or general who owes it permanent allegiance and is welfare. entitled to its protection on the basis of the 2. A responsible citizen promotes the legal and political conception of common good by obeying the law, paying citizenship. Thus, being a citizen taxes honestly, informing himself about necessarily entails assertion of one’s important political issues, volunteering in rights and privileges and conversely an the community and respecting the rights unwavering performance of his duties and and opinions of others. obligations to the government. 3. A responsible citizen is willing to sacrifice Jus soli is the most common means a his individual interests for the collective person acquires citizenship of a nation. good of the nation. He remembers his Another system called jus sanguinis is civic duties and serves his country despite when a person acquires citizenship any discomfort such a course might bring. through their parents or ancestors. 4. Responsible citizens obey the law. A harmonious society has order. Every RIGHTS AS A CITIZEN (UNDER THE citizen implicitly consents to maintaining CONSTITUTION) social order by upholding the law even The constitution recognizes the human when he does not like it. If he believes that rights of every citizen as enumerated in a law is unfair, he resorts to the political the bill of rights. These include natural process to change the law in the manner rights, civil rights, political rights, economic society prescribes. rights as well as rights of the accused 5. Good citizens are familiar with politics and before, during and after trial. keep the government accountable by Human rights are rights inherent to all staying on top of its latest proceedings. human beings, whatever our nationality, They wisely exercise their right vote so place of residence, sex, national or ethnic that able, honest men are elected to seats origin, colour, religion, language, or any in government. other status. These rights are all 6. Responsible citizens volunteer in the interrelated, interdependent and community and when they see a need, indivisible. they do not idly wait for someone else (like Universal human rights are often the government) to address it. expressed and guaranteed by law, in the 7. Responsible citizens respect the rights forms of treaties, customary international and opinions of others and do not use law, general principles and other sources force or abuse government to silence of international law. International human people who have different views because rights law lays down obligations of such actions subvert a free society. = governments to act in certain ways or to 8. Responsible citizens listen to others with refrain from certain acts, in order to sincerity and work with fellow citizens to promote and protect human rights and find the best solution to problems. fundamental freedoms of individuals or groups. 15