PTE Module 1 & 2 Reviewer PDF

**PTE Module 1 and 2 Reviewer** **Module 1** **Transportation --** is all about moving goods and people from one place to another. It is also **Safe**, **efficient**, **reliable**, and **sustainable** movement of persons and goods over time and space **Transportation engineering** -- is a type of...

**PTE Module 1 and 2 Reviewer** **Module 1** **Transportation --** is all about moving goods and people from one place to another. It is also **Safe**, **efficient**, **reliable**, and **sustainable** movement of persons and goods over time and space **Transportation engineering** -- is a type of civil engineering which focuses on the infrastructure of transportation: all the elements which support the movement of goods and people. **Transportation engineers** design runways, build bridges, layout roads and plan docking facilities **THE CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM** 1\. **Multi-modal**: Covering all modes of transport; air, land, and sea for both passenger and freight. 2\. **Multi-sector**: Encompassing the problems and viewpoints of government, private industry, and public. 3\. **Multi-problem**: Ranging across a spectrum of issues that includes national and international policy, planning of regional system, the location and design of specific facilities, carrier management issues, regulatory, institutional and financial policies 4\. **Multi-objective**: Aiming at national and regional economic development, urban development, environment quality, and social quality, as well as service to users and financial and economic feasibility. 5\. **Multi-disciplinary**: Drawing on the theories and methods of engineering, economics, operations research, political science, psychology, other natural, and social sciences, management and law. The **context** in which transportation system is studied is also **very diverse** and are mentioned below: 1\. **Planning range**: Urban transportation planning, producing long range plans for 5-25 years for multimodal transportation systems in urban areas as well as short range programs of action for less than five years. 2\. **Passenger transport**: Regional passenger transportation, dealing with inter-city passenger transport by air, rail, and highway and possible with new modes. 3\. **Freight transport**: Routing and management, choice of different modes of rail and truck. 4\. **International transport**: Issues such as containerization, inter-modal co-ordination. Therefore, as we understand from above **Transportation engineering** is a very diverse and multidisciplinary field, which deals with the planning, design, operation, and maintenance of transportation systems **Good transportation** is that which provides safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible movement of both goods and people. **Three Elements of Transportation System** **Infrastructure**: which includes Road, canal, rail, air Transfer points Supporting elements (Signs, signals, safety) **Vehicles**: which includes Planes, trains, autos, buses, ships, trucks **Operators/Content**: which includes Drivers, pilots, freight, and passengers. **MAJOR DISCIPLINES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING** 1\. **Transportation Planning** -- essentially involves the development of a transport model which will accurately represent both the current as well as future transportation system. 2\. **Geometric Design** -- deals with physical proportioning of other transportation facilities, in contrast with the structural design of the facilities. The topics include the cross-sectional features, horizontal alignment, vertical alignment and intersections. 3\. **Pavement Design** -- deals with the structural design of roads, both (bituminous and concrete), commonly known as (flexible pavements and rigid pavements) respectively. It deals with the design of paving materials, determination of the layer thickness, and construction and maintenance procedures. 4\. **Traffic Engineering** -- covers a broad range of engineering applications with a focus on the safety of the public, the efficient use of transportation resources, and the mobility of people and goods. Traffic engineering involves a variety of engineering and management skills, including design, operation, and system optimization. **FACTORS IN TRANSPORTATION DEVELOPMENT** 1\. **Economic Factors** -- almost all transport development is economic in origin. The chief preoccupation of the first human was the procurement of food, shelter and sometimes clothing. As they become more highly developed their needs increased, often beyond what their local economy could supply. Means of transporting goods from distant places had to be devised, adding to the costs of the goods thereby secured. The need for transporting individuals over wider areas also arose. Increasing transportation productivity and lower unit costs have occurred over the years as the system of transportation becomes more highly developed and complex. 2\. **Geographical Factor** -- geography is closely related to economics. The geographical location of natural resources determines the transport routes that gives access to those resources and create economic utility, that is, time and place utility, by taking them from a location where they have little values to processing and consuming areas where their values is vastly increased. 3\. **Political Polices** -- frequently play a deciding role in transport development. Basically, is in a way to form integrated political system and control. 4\. **Military** -- the military might of a nation is primarily intended to support its political polices and to provide for national defense. Consequently, often it has direct influence on transport development. 5\. **Technological Factor** -- progress in direct and supporting technologies has played an obvious role in transportation, for instance introduction of new economical transportation mode to exist system calls for the development of transportation. 6\. **Competition** -- the competitive urges have given a powerful impetus to transport development. Railroads compete with railroad also with trucks, barges, pipelines and airlines. Airlines have counted heavily on speed but have also been forced to greater safety and dependability to meet ground transport competition. No less real is the competition between products and industries tributary to transport. Bituminous material competes with concrete as the road surface. Diesel won steam but may face competition with electricity. 7\. **Urbanization** -- the rapid growth of urban areas by an even more rapidly expanding population is a phenomenon that cannot be overlooked among transport development factors. Accessibility to land and the intensity of land use is closely related to transport availability. **MODES OF TRANSPORTATION** Transport modes are the means by which people and freight achieve mobility. They fall into one of three basic types, depending on over what surface they travel -- land (road, rail and pipelines), water (shipping), and air. 1\. **Road transportation** -- road infrastructures are large consumers of space with the lowest level of physical constraints among transportation modes. However, physiographical constraints are significant in road construction with substantial additional costs to overcome features such as rivers or rugged terrain. Road transport systems have high maintenance costs, both for the vehicles and infrastructures. 2\. **Rail transportation** -- railways are composed of traced paths on which are bound vehicles. They have an average level of physical constrains linked to the types of locomotives and a low gradient is required, particularly for freight. Rail is by far the land transportation mode offering the highest capacity with a 23,000 tons fully loaded coal unit train being the heaviest load ever carried. 3\. **Pipelines** Pipeline routes are practically unlimited as they can be laid on land or under water. The longest gas pipeline links Alberta to Sarnia (Canada), which is 2,911 km in length. The longest oil pipeline is the Trans-Siberian, extending over 9,344 km from the Russian arctic oilfields in eastern Siberia to Western Europe. 4\. **Maritime Transportation** -- because of the physical properties of water conferring buoyancy and limited friction, maritime transportation is the most effective mode to move large quantities of cargo over long distances. Main maritime routes are composed of oceans, coasts, seas, lakes, rivers and channels. However, due to the location of economic activities maritime circulation takes place on specific parts of the maritime space, particularly over the North Atlantic and the North Pacific. More than any other mode, maritime transportation is linked to heavy industries, such as steel and petrochemical facilities adjacent to port sites. 5\. **Air transportation** -- air routes are practically unlimited, but they are denser over the North Atlantic, inside North America and Europe and over the North Pacific. Air transport constraints are multidimensional and include the site (a commercial plane needs about 3,300 meters of runway for landing and take-off), the climate, fog, and aerial currents. 6\. **Intermodal transportation** -- concerns a variety of modes used in combination so that the respective advantages of each mode are better exploited. Although intermodal transportation applies for passenger movements, such as the usage of the different, but interconnected modes of a public transit system, it is over freight transportation that the most significant impacts have been observed. **INTRODUCTION TO THE TRANSPORT PLANNING PROCESS** **Transport planning** has evolved over the last 40 years, but with no clear theoretical foundations. Everyone is aware of the problems created by the increased demand for transport and most effort has been directed at finding methods of analysis with a practical, usually quantitative, output. The broad structure of the approach followed that of the Chicago Area Transportation Study (1960), one of the first classic aggregate studies (Figure 2.1). This is the basic structure, which is still used, albeit with many modifications. Expected vehicle and passenger volumes in the main travel corridors were estimated and increases in road and public transport capacities were proposed to accommodate those expected increases over the following 20 years. As itemized by Thomson (1974) the basic process can be summarized in eight stages. **Problem Definition**: what is the problem and what are the planning objectives? **Diagnosis**: how did the problem originate with views from different perspectives (for example engineering and economic)? **Projection**: forecast of what is likely to happen in the future. This is often the most difficult stage. **Constraints**: three main types of constraints limit the choice of alternatives (financial, political and environmental). **Options**: what are the range of options which can be used to achieve the planning objectives stated in the first stage? **Formulation of Plans**: a set of different packages covering road and public transport alternatives. **Testing of Alternatives**: usually through a modelling process to see whether each alternative can achieve the stated objectives and how each compare with other alternatives. Trip generation, trip distribution, modal split and traffic assignment studies. **Evaluation**: to assess the value for money usually through some form of cost benefit analysis or financial appraisal. The **Transport Planning Model** (TPM) formed the central part of the transport planning process and was the testing of alternatives in Thomson's categorization. Conventionally the TPM is divided into four sequential, linked sub models: **Trip generation** -- is the number of trips associated with a zone or unit and consists of trips produced and trips attracted to that zone. **Trip distribution** -- is the allocation of trips between each pair of zones in the study area. **Modal split** -- determines the number of trips by each mode of transport between each pair of zones. **Trip assignment** -- allocates all trips by origin and destination zone to the actual road network. Separate allocations normally take place for each mode. **Module 2** The Philippines has one of the highest urbanization rates in the region. Based on UN data, **63%** of the countries total population lives in urban areas in 2005. The rural population continues to decline as the current trend towards urbanization grows with nearly 70% of the population expected to live in urban areas by 2015. There are presently 33 highly urbanized cities in the Philippines and these cities are experiencing worsening urban transport problems. **URBAN TRANSPORT CHALLENGES IN THE PHILIPPINES** 1\) **Rapid Urbanization** -- the Philippines is one of the most rapidly growing and urbanizing countries in Asia. The rapid increase in population puts pressure on existing urban transport infrastructure and services especially in urban areas. In 1980, the total population of the country was 48.098 million. Twenty years later, in 2000, the total population of the Philippines became 7 6.504 million.  Table 2.1 presents the population growth rate of the Philippines and Metro Manila. Explosive population growth rate occurred during the period from 1960 to 1970 with a rate of 3.08%. During the same period, Metro Manila experienced unprecedented growth rate at 4.89%. Although the population growth rate of Metro Manila has been decreasing, the national overall rate for the period of 2000 to 2007 is still very high at 2.04%. The Philippines has one of the highest urbanization rates in the Region. The urbanization rate of the Philippines was around 60% in 2000. This is expected to reach around 77% in 2030 higher than that of Japan, Indonesia, and Thailand. The Philippines currently has **33 highly urbanized cities** with high population growth. The **16 cities in Metro Manila** are included while the remaining **17 cities are in other regions** of the country. For the period of 2000 to 2007, the average population growth rate in Metro Manila cities is 1.92%. Cities outside Metro Manila are growing more rapidly with an average population growth rate of 2.55%. 2\) **Urban Density** -- an analysis on urban density of cities is very useful since it is considered an important factor in understanding how cities function. Urban density is a term used in urban planning and urban design to refer to the number of people inhabiting a given urbanized area.  For cities in Metro Manila, the **highest** urban density is in **Manila City at 66,429 persons per square kilometer**. The City of **Muntinlupa** has the **lowest** urban density at **11,380** persons per square kilometer. The cities of Mandaluyong, Pasay, Navotas, Makati, and Malabon also exhibit compact configurations. Table 2.5 presents the urban density of cities outside of Metro Manila. **General Santos City** has the **highest urban density** followed by Cebu City, both of which have densities over 13,000 persons per square kilometer. Baguio City, notably, has a relatively high urban density along with Mandaue, Zamboanga, and Davao. **Puerto Princesa City** has the **lowest urban density** at barely 300 persons per square kilometer. **MOTORIZATION** **Vehicle registration statistics** indicate a nationwide average vehicle registration growth rate of 7.5% annually for the period 2000 to 2008. Vehicle registration in Metro Manila continues to grow at 3.86% annually. Cities like Makati, Pasay, Caloocan, and Pasig have posted negative growth rates while cities that are located at the fringes of Metro Manila have very high vehicle registration growth including Taguig, Valenzuela, and Paranaque. Only Cebu City has experienced negative growth in annual private vehicle registration.  The largest increase in private vehicle registration in the period 2000 to 2008 is attributed to the drastic rise in the number of motorcycles. The number of motorcycle registration in Metro Manila increased at an alarming rate of **2 7.6% annually** while all other cities recorded an average of 13.8%. The overall growth rate in the number of motorcycles nationwide is 20.3% annually. **PUBLIC TRANSPORT SUPPLY** Based on the LTFRB record of franchises in 2007, there are about 61,800 public utility vehicles operating in Metro Manila. For buses, the average fleet size per operator is about 13.6 while majority of jeepney operators owned only one unit. There are about 73 intra-city bus routes serving Metro Manila with 33 bus routes serving EDSA and the rest on non-EDSA including 17 routes linking Metro Manila to Bulacan, Rizal, Cavite, and Laguna. There are more than 640 intra-city jeepney routes serving the metropolis and about 130 AUV routes serving mainly commercial districts and intermodal transfer points within Metro Manila. **ROAD DEVELOPMENT** Almost all cities have road densities higher than the 1km per square kilometer threshold that corresponds to sufficiency of roads. Cities in Metro Manila have generally higher road densities compared to other cities. This also indicates that Metro Manila cities have a comprehensive road network system. **TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS** The Philippines lacks comprehensive accident studies, but it is generally known that cities in the country face serious challenges in road safety. Metro Manila accounts for one-third of the country\'s recorded number of fatalities from road accidents in 2002. Pedestrians, especially those below 15 years old, were found to be the most vulnerable group. In Metro Manila, the **Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA)** maintains the Metro Manila Accident Reporting and Analysis System **(MMARAS**). **Paranaque and Quezon Cities** has the **highest** fatal accident rates per 100,000 people. The cities of M**akati, San Juan, and Mandaluyon**g registered non-fatal accident rates of over 1,000 occurrences per 100,000 people, the highest in Metro Manila. **AIR POLLUTION** The ambient air quality statistics from the Environmental Management Bureau (**EMB)** shows a general decrease in TSP concentration in Metro Manila from 1998 to 2006. However, the TSP readings in 2006 are still above the guideline value of 90 ug/ Ncm for one-year average exposure. **ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND CLIMATE CHANGE** Increase in motorization as well as reliance on fossil fuels and inefficient vehicle technologies in the transport sector has led to increased emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases (GHG). The continuous release of CO2 and other GHG to the environment beyond the Earth\'s natural absorptive capacity is accountable for global warming. **TRAFFIC CONGESTION** A study in 2000 states that time lost due to serious road traffic congestion in Metro Manila amounts to PHPl00 Billion each year. Traffic congestion is especially severe during peak periods where in-vehicle time is rather long. In 1996, the recorded average travel speeds were extremely low at 12 km/h for cars and 9 km/h for buses and jeepneys. 1\) **City Development Strategies** -- The City Development Strategy (CDS) is an action plan for equitable growth in cities, developed and sustained through participation, to improve the quality of life for all citizens. The goals of CDS include a collective city vision and action plan aimed at improving urban governance and management, increasing investment to expand employment and services, and systematic and sustained reductions in urban poverty. 2\) **National Land Transport Policy Framework** -- With the rising fuel and food prices and other critical issues confronting the land transport sub-sector in the Philippines, Executive Order 712 was issued on 11 March 2008. This directed the DOTC to formulate the National Land Transport Policy Framework (NLTPF). 3\) **National Transport Policy and Planning** -- National Transport Policy and Planning (NTPP) is an AusAID-funded initiative under the Philippines-Australia Partnership for Economic Governance Reforms (PEGR). NTPP is a five-year program aimed at supporting the Philippine Government in the formulation and implementation of reforms in various areas of economic governance including reforms in the transport sector. It is expected to provide the foundation and framework for a National Transport Plan and a Medium-Term Public Investment Plan (MTPIP). **Metro Manila Transportation Integration Study** - (MMUTIS) followed the conventional transport planning process, but also incorporated participatory planning through its planning workshops and consultative activities. MMUTIS formulated and evaluated four scenarios on future urban development patterns. **Metro Cebu Land Use and Transport Study** - (MCLUTS) prepared a structure plan to guide the development of Metro Cebu from 1981 to 2000. A phased program of transportation infrastructure investments had been prepared in the context of the Structure Plan. Included in the short-term plan were transportation system management measures. The strategic planning component of the MCLUTS formulated, tested, and evaluated four basic urban forms, namely: **1)** Concentrated without mainland reclamation; **2)** Concentrated with mainland reclamation; **3)** Linear-dispersed; and **4)** Mactan Island expansion **Transportation and Traffic Management Plan for Davao City** -- The study was primarily undertaken to come up with a transportation and traffic management plan that would meet the travel needs of the rapid urban expansion of the city of Davao. In particular, the study intended to: **1)** assess the existing traffic condition in Davao City through compilation of primary and secondary data; **2)** design an efficient traffic circulation plan to ensure smooth vehicular and pedestrian flow; **3)** identify traffic management measures and alternatives appropriate for the city to alleviate congestion; **4)** develop a framework plan for long-term period; and, **5)** recommend policy directions to sustain programs for short, medium, and long-term plans. **Road Network Improvement of Regional Growth Centers** -- The study on Road Network Improvement for Development of Regional Growth Centers was undertaken in 2004 covering Metro Iloilo, Metro Bacolod, and Metro Cagayan de Oro. The objectives of the study were: **1)** formulate 10 a Master Plan for the Urban Road Network Development including short-, medium- and long-term implementation programs; **2)** carry out a feasibility study for high priority road projects; and **3)** enhance the capability of the National Government as well as the Local Government Units for urban road network planning and feasibility study. The study entailed the conduct of the following activities: **1)** Socio-economic profiling of the metropolitan areas. **2)** Review of transport and traffic conditions. **3)** Urban transport and land use modeling. **4)** Development of urban road master plans. **5)** Feasibility studies on priority road projects. **LAND USE AND TRANSPORT PLANNING** There is a growing need to address urban transport issues in several other large and medium size cities, especially since most of these cities often do not have well-developed urban transport plans or transport services. Except for Metro Manila, Metro Cebu, and Davao City, very few comprehensive urban transport studies have been undertaken for cities, if at all. **FUNDING FOR URBAN TRANSPORT** **1) Motor Vehicle User\'s Charge** Republic Act No. 8794 entitled, \"An Act Imposing a Motor Vehicle User\'s Charge (MVUC) on Owners of all types of Motor Vehicles and for other Purposes\", otherwise known as the MVUC Law which was ratified in June 2000 stipulates that all monies collected under his law shall be earmarked and used exclusively for road maintenance and improvements of road drainage, installation of adequate and efficient traffic lights and road safety devices, and air pollution control, which shall be deposited to the National Treasury in the following ( 4) Special Trust Accounts, wherein a Road Board was created to manage the said funds in a prudent and efficient manner: **(i)** Special Road Support Fund. **(ii)** Special Local Road Fund. **(iii**) Special Road Safety Fund; and **(iv)** Special Vehicle Pollution Control Fund **2) Local Funds** One of the major reasons why urban transport-related projects do not figure dominantly in the CDP is the absence of transport data on the local level. Because of poor transport sector data, sectoral analysis is difficult and necessary transport projects cannot be identified. **3) Performance-Based Grants** The experience of DILG in managing the SLRF is notable as it demonstrates the catalytic impacts of fund allocations that can be channeled to LGUs. Fund allocations can be subject to appropriate levels of monitoring and evaluation with a mix of capacity-building strategies. In the case of SLRF, DILG conducts field visits and dialogues with concerned LGUs. The DILG have also collected useful statistics relating to the urban transport system of LGUs. For example, the SLRF office now maintains an inventory of existing city and provincial roads. These strategies can be supportive in the administration of performance-based grants for urban transport. **ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT** The Philippines is committed to identify, promote, and undertake Environmentally Sustainable Transport (**EST**) strategies and initiatives, in support of national progress and development. In fact, the country is a signatory to various conventions and declarations. The Philippines has undertaken various programs and activities towards achieving sustainable development and addressing climate change since it's signing to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change **(UNFCCC**) Agreement in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. These activities eventually led to the formulation, legislation, and implementation of Republic Act No. 8749 or the \"Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999,\" which provides for environmentally sustainable transport through harmonization of national emission standards with the international standards. The Philippines is also a signatory to the Aichi Statement of 2005 that recognizes, among others, the need for both national and local level governments to develop and adopt integrated policies, strategies, and programs incorporating key elements of environmentally sustainable transport. The Aichi Statement defines these key elements of EST into twelve (12) thematic areas importance): **(i)** Public health. **(ii)** Strengthening roadside air quality monitoring and management. **(iii)** Traffic noise management. \(iv) Vehicle emission control, standards, and inspection and maintenance. **(v)** Cleaner fuels. **(vi)** Public transport planning and travel demand management. **(vii)** Non-motorized transport. **(viii)** Environment and people friendly infrastructure development. **(ix)** Social equity and gender perspectives. **(x**) Road safety and maintenance. **(xi)** Knowledge base, awareness, and public participation. **(xii)** Land use planning. **SIMPLIFIED URBAN TRANSPORT ANALYSIS** **1) Road Network Data** -- Road network data, which include information on surface type and surface conditions, are available in different offices in charge of road administration. The Department of Public Works and Highways (**DPWH**) maintains a regular inventory of national roads, while the DILG, in the office of Special Local Road Fund, keeps an updated inventory of provincial and city roads. There is no central repository of barangay road data as these are usually kept at local planning or engineering offices, or the district engineering offices of the DPWH. **2) Traffic Count Data** -- traffic counts data are available for some national road's sections at the DPWH Planning Service Division. Traffic counts for city roads, are commonly not performed except for cities that have prepared local transport plans and have conducted local traffic counts. **3) Motor Vehicle Registration Data** -- motor vehicle registration data are available at the Management and Information Division of LTO. Data are commonly aggregated according to district offices of LTO and, as such, only give broad indications of the vehicle registration characteristics of cities. Motor vehicle registrations are classified according to vehicle type, ownership type, engine type, and age among others. Electronic data on district office level statistics are however not available for older years. Since paper-based district level data at Management Information Department (MID) are commonly lent out to researchers coming to LTO, pages are sometimes mixed up or have missing sections. **4) Public Transport Data** - public transport supply and operations data are critical to the planning of public transport system. Deregulated public transport in the country has contributed to the absence of centralized data collection system for public transport system particularly on the level of passenger ridership. The number of passenger utility vehicle units and buses that are for hire is available from LTO and gives an indication of the supply, while operational data like routes, fare, and operating units are available from LTFRB. **5) Traffic Accident Data** -- Data on road accidents are important for road safety planning. Two of the main sources of traffic accident data in the country are the Traffic Accident Reporting and Analysis System **(TARAS**) and Metropolitan Manila Accident Reporting and Analysis System **(MMARAS**). TARAS started in 2004 and is integrated by DPWH. MMARAS started in 2002 and is maintained by MMDA. Both systems make use of a computer software and recording procedure of traffic accidents involving local traffic enforcement units. Details on traffic accidents are recorded in TARAS forms, processed into the database, and are submitted to the DPWH district offices. MMARAS, on the other hand, is operated under the Metropolitan Road Safety Unit (**MRSU**) of the MMDA Traffic Operation Center (**TOC)** with the cooperation of the Traffic Enforcement Group of the NCR Police office of the PNP. **6) Transport Funding** -- The level of investment and the source of financing urban transport investment are necessary in determining the capacity and efficiency of LGUs for financing urban transport programs and projects. Majority of city transport investment data are only available at the local budget or treasury office. These data can be expected from detailed Statement of Income and Expenditure accounts that often come in raw form. Data integration is often done according to the minimum requirements and standard format of the Bureau of Local Government Finance **(BLGF**). The data format is commonly in aggregated form and do not specifically identify, for instance, details of economic services expenditure which may partially cover transport investments. Some data on road maintenance expenditure are, however, available at the central office level. Module 3 Urban areas are now home to 50 per cent of the world's population but they account for 60-80 per cent of energy consumption and 75 per cent of carbon emissions. Over 50% of the world's population lives in cities today and more than 80% is expected by 2050 The term "mobilization" is a military term that describes rallying and preparing troops for war. Motorization is the process of adopting and using motor vehicles as a core part of economic and daily life -- is closely linked with other dimensions of development such as urbanization and industrialization. Motorization, however, is a double-edged sword. The Black hole theory of road investment, also known as Braess's paradox states that "For each point of a road network, let there be given the number of cars starting from it, and the destination of the cars. Under these conditions one wishes to estimate the distribution of traffic flow. Whether one street is preferable to another depends not only on the quality of the road, but also on the density of the flow. If every driver takes the path that looks most favorable to him, the resultant running times need not be minimal. Furthermore, it is indicated by an example that an extension of the road network may cause a redistribution of the traffic that results in longer individual running times" Transportation Demand Management or TDM (also called Mobility Management) refers to various strategies that change travel behavior (how, when and where people travel) to increase transport system efficiency and achieve specific planning objectives. It emphasizes the movement of people and goods, not just motor vehicles. **CATEGORIES OF MOBILITY MANGEMENT STRATEGIES** **A. IMPROVE TRANSPORT OPTIONS** **1. Alternative Work Schedules** a\. Flextime. This means that employees are allowed some flexibility in their daily work schedules. b\. Compressed Workweek (CWW). This means that employees work fewer but longer days. c\. Staggered Shifts. This means that shifts are staggered to reduce the number of employees arriving and leaving a worksite at one time. Flextime and CWW are usually implemented as an employee and manager option **2. Non-motorized Transportation** Non-motorized Transportation (also known as Active Transportation and Human Powered Transportation) includes Walking and Bicycling, and variants such as Small-Wheeled. These modes provide both recreation (they are an end in themselves) and transportation (they provide access to goods and activities), although users may consider a particular trip to serve both objectives. a\. Pedestrian Facilities Pedestrian oriented development (POD) is a pedestrian friendly policy providing clear, comfortable pedestrian access to commercial and residential areas and transit stops. POD is employed through a combination of land design practices including compact development, mixed-use, traffic calming, pedestrian -- and public transit-orientation, and a mix of housing types. Pedestrian and cycling improvements are usually implemented by local governments, sometimes with funding and technical support of regional or state/provincial transportation agencies. **Hindrances To Active Transport** Traffic signals are designed to make motor vehicle travel faster, to the detriment of cyclists and pedestrians Pedestrian barricades and one-way streets used to facilitate motor vehicle travel impose huge detours for cyclists and pedestrians Lack of safe infrastructure. **B. INCENTIVES TO REDUCE DRIVING** **1. Commuter Financial Incentives** **a.** Employee Parking Pricing -- means that companies charge for parking at their parking lots or eliminate existing subsidies for off-site employee parking. b\. Parking Cash-Out means that commuters who are offered subsidized parking are also offered the cash equivalent if they use alternative travel modes. c\. Travel allowances are a financial payment provided to employees instead of parking subsidies. Commuters can use this money to pay for parking or for another travel mode. d\. Transit and rideshare benefits are free or discounted transit fares provided to employees (Commuter Check). **2. Road Pricing** Road Pricing means that motorists pay directly for driving on a particular roadway or in a particular area. Value Pricing is a marketing term which emphasizes that road pricing can directly benefit motorists through reduced congestion or improved roadways. Managed Lanes is a general term for various roadway management strategies, including HOV, HOT, and congestion priced lanes. Road Pricing has two general objectives: revenue generation and congestion management. a\. Road Tolls - Tolls are a common way to fund highway and bridge improvements. Such tolls are a fee-for-service, with revenues dedicated to roadway project costs. b\. Congestion Pricing (also called Value Pricing) refers to variable road tolls (higher prices under congested conditions and lower prices at less congested times and locations) intended to reduce peak-period traffic volumes to optimal levels. c\. High Occupancy Toll (HOT) lanes are High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes that also allow use by a limited number of low occupancy vehicles if they pay a toll. d\. Cordon tolls are fees paid by motorists to drive in a particular area, usually a city center. **C. SMART GROWTH** Smart growth (also called New Urbanism and Location Efficient Development) is a general term for policies that integrate transportation and land use decisions. Smart Growth can help create more Accessible land use patterns, improve Transport Options, create more Livable communities, reduce public service costs and achieve other Land Use Objectives. Smart Growth is an alternative to urban sprawl. Smart Growth emphasizes Accessibility, meaning that the activities people use frequently are located close together Urban: In urban areas it emphasizes redevelopment and infill of existing urban neighborhoods, improving mixed-use design features, and enhancing multi-modal transport systems, particularly walking and public transit. Suburban: In suburban areas it creates medium-density, mixed-use, multi-modal centers (sometimes called Transit Villages), either by incrementally developing existing suburban communities or by master-plan developments that reflect Smart Growth principles. Rural: In rural areas Smart Growth involves policies that help channel development and public services into accessible, mixed-use villages, and implementation of Rural Community TDM. Smart Growth is usually implemented as a set of policies and programs by state/provincial, regional or local governments. **D. TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT** Transit Oriented Development (TOD) refers to residential and Commercial Centers designed to maximize access by Transit and Non-motorized transportation, and with other features to Encourage Transit Ridership. Transit Oriented Development is a particular category of Smart Growth, New Urbanism and Location Efficient Development. Transit Oriented Development generally requires at least 6 residential units per acre in residential areas and 25 employees per acre in Commercial Centers, and about twice that for premium quality transit, such as rail service. Transit Oriented Development can consist of new urban transit lines and stations, new suburban neighborhoods designed around public transit stations, and incremental changes to existing urban neighborhoods that have public transit.