PSYNTRO Chapter 5-6 PDF

Learning Classical Conditioning ★ What is Learning? ★ Ivan Pavlov ○ Learning is any relatively permanent ○ Russian physiologist change in behavior brought about by ○ He pioneered the emp...

Learning Classical Conditioning ★ What is Learning? ★ Ivan Pavlov ○ Learning is any relatively permanent ○ Russian physiologist change in behavior brought about by ○ He pioneered the empirical study of the basic experience or practice principles of a particular learning “Relatively permanent” refers to ○ Studied the digestive system of his dogs the fact that when people learn ○ Classical Conditioning anything, some part of their Unconditioned Stimulus brain is physically changed to Stimulus that leads to an involuntary record what they’ve learned response ○ Part of memory Ex: Salivating when you see food ○ Without the ability to remember what Unconditioned Response happens, people cannot learn anything The automatic and involuntary response to the unconditioned stimulus Unlearned and occurs because of genetic “wiring” in the nervous system Stimulus Ex: Salivation to the food ★ Stimulus Generalization Conditioned Stimulus ○ The tendency to respond to a stimulus Learned response that is similar to the original Can be a stimulus if paired enough conditioned stimulus (OCS) with the unconditioned stimulus ★ Stimulus Discrimination Ex: Hearing bowls make you salivate ○ When an organism learns to respond to before the food comes different stimuli in different ways Conditioned Response ★ Extinction Essentially the same as the ○ When the conditioned stimulus (CS) unconditioned response but weaker was constantly repeated in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) the conditioned response will die down or become extinct ○ Conditioned stimulus and conditioned 1  response will always come before the Higher-order Conditioning original unconditioned stimulus ★ Spontaneous Recovery ★ Higher-order Conditioning ○ Conditioned response can briefly ○ Another concept in classical conditioning reappear when the original conditioned ○ Occurs when a strong conditioned stimulus is paired stimulus returns with a neutral stimulus ○ A strong conditioned stimulus can play the part of an unconditioned stimulus, and the previously neutral Conditioned Emotional Responses stimulus becomes a second conditioned stimulus ○ Neutral stimulus > conditioned stimulus > conditioned ★ Emotional Response response ○ Early studies showed that emotional ○ If the neutral stimulus happens enough times before the response could be conditioned conditioned stimulus it will gain a conditioned response ○ Fear is a natural emotional response ○ Fear is an involuntary reaction that helps organisms survive Biological Influences on Conditioning ★ Conditioned Emotional Response ○ Learning of phobias is a good example of ★ Conditioned Taste Aversions certain type of classical conditioning, ○ Reaction to food is a kind of classical conditioning conditioned emotional response ○ Nausea is an involuntary reaction that helps organisms ○ Ex: ads that show specific items so that an survive emotion can be associated with their item or ○ Can be learned without repeated exposure to stimulus ad ○ Ex: Eating food but after eating it you vomit. You will ★ Vicarious Conditioning learn to stop eating that particular food because it elicits a ○ Conditioned by watching someone else bad response respond to a stimulus ○ Ex: Watching someone cry when getting an Cognitive Perspective injection ★ Cognitive Perspective ○ Involves mental activity of consciously expecting something to occur ○ Conditioned stimulus provides information to UCS 2  Operant Conditioning B.F Skinner ★ Operant Conditioning ○ Learning that applies to voluntary ★ History behavior ○ B.F Skinner assumed the leadership of the field after ○ Heart of operant conditioning is the John Watson effect of consequences on behavior ○ He found in the work of Thorndike a way to explain ○ Learning depends on what happens all behavior as the product of learning after the response ○ Gave the name of the learning of voluntary behavior: ○ Ex: If I do this, what’s in it for me? Operant Conditioning ○ Edward Thorndike was one of the first Voluntary behavior is what people and animals to study learning voluntary responses do to operate the world Thorndike developed the law of effect If an action is followed by a pleasurable Reinforcement consequence, it will tend to be repeated ★ Reinforcement If an action is followed ○ Means to “strengthen” by an unpleasant ○ Reinforcement is what follows the response and it consequence it will not causes the response to happen again be repeated ○ In operant conditioning the key to learning is reinforcement ○ Primary reinforcer Something that can fulfill a basic need ○ Secondary reinforcer Gets its reinforcing properties from primary reinforcers Gets its reinforcing properties from classical conditioning ○ Positive reinforcement 3 Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning Reinforcement of a response by the addition or experience of a pleasurable consequence ★ End results ○ Negative reinforcement ○ Operant conditioning Removing or escaping from an unpleasant Increase in the rate of an already experience will also increase the chances that a occurring response response will be repeated ○ Classical conditioning Creation of a new response to a stimulus that did not normally Schedules of Reinforcement produce that response ★ Responses ★ Partial Reinforcement ○ Operant conditioning ○ A response that is reinforced after some time, but not all, Responses are voluntary emitted correct responses will be more resistant to extinction by organism ○ More true to real life ○ Classical conditioning ○ Ex: Getting paid after doing X things a X times Responses are involuntary and ★ Continuous Reinforcement automatic caused by the ○ A reinforcer for every correct response stimulus ★ Fixed Interval Schedule of Reinforcement ★ Consequences ○ A reinforcer is received after a certain, fixed interval of ○ Operant conditioning time has passed Important in forming an ○ Does not produce a faster response rate association ★ Variable Interval Schedule of Reinforcement ○ Classical conditioning ○ Interval of time after which the individual must respond Antecedent stimuli are in order to receive a reinforcer (ex: good grades) important in forming an ★ Fixed Ratio Schedule of Reinforcement association ○ Number of responses will stay the same to receive a ★ Placement/Timing reinforcer ○ Operant conditioning ○ Ex: reward card (10 stamps to get a freebie) Reinforcement should be ★ Variable Ratio Schedule of Reinforcement immediate ○ Number of responses change from one trial to another ○ Classical conditioning ○ Timing and reinforce only the desired behavior CS must occur immediately before the UCS 4  ★ Development ○ Operant conditioning Punishment Expectancy develops for reinforcement to follow a ★ Punishment correct response ○ Opposite of reinforcement ○ Classical conditioning ○ Punishment weakens responses Expectancy develops for UCS to ★ Punishment by application follow CS ○ Occurs when something unpleasant is added to the situation or applied ★ Punishment by removal ○ Punished by removing something pleasurable or desired after the behavior occurred Reinforcement and Punishment ★ Positive (Adding) ○ Reinforcement Valued or desirable Problems with Punishment ○ Punishment ★ Punishment Something unpleasant ○ Used to weaken a response and getting rid of a ★ Negative (Removing/Avoiding) response that is already establish ○ Reinforcement ○ Severe punishment will stop behavior immediately Something unpleasant ○ Punishment by removal teaches the child what not to ○ Punishment do but not what the child should do Valued or desirable Concepts in Operant Conditioning Stimulus Control ★ Shaping ★ Discriminative Stimulus ○ Small steps towards the goal are reinforced until the goal ○ Provides an organism with the cue for is reached making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement 5  Cognitive Learning Theory Operant Conditioning: Behavior Modification ★ Cognition ★ Behavior Modification ○ Mental events that take place inside a person’s mind ○ Refers to the application of operant ○ “Monkey see, monkey do” conditioning to bring about changes ○ Key theorists: ○ Time-out Edward Tolman Refers to a mild punishment by Best known experiment in learning removal in which a misbehaving involved teaching three groups of rats child or adult is placed in a the same maze, one at a time special area away from the Latent learning is the idea that learning attention of others could happen without reinforcement and ★ Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) then later affect behavior ○ Modern term Wolfgang Kohler ○ Skills are broken down to their simplest Determined that insight could not be steps and then taught to the child determined by trial and error alone through a system of reinforcement Perceived solutions not rewards Martin Seligman Founded positive psychology Learned helplessness is the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation Observational Learning because of a history of repeated failures ★ Observational Learning in the past ○ Learning of a new behavior through Brain stem that releases serotonin and watching the actions of someone else can play a role in activating the ○ Albert Bandura amygdala (role in fear and anxiety) Placed a clown punching doll in a Extended the concept of learned room with children helplessness to explain some behaviors Found that consequences do matter in of depression motivating a person ○ Four Elements of Observational Learning 6  Attention To learn from observation, Memory you need to pay attention Memory ★ What is memory? Retain the memory of what ○ An active system that receives information from the was done senses, puts that information into a usable form, Imitation organizes it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the Must be capable of information from storage reproducing or imitating the ★ Three Processes of Memory actions of the model ○ Encoding Desire The set of mental operations that people Must have the desire or perform on sensory information to convert that motivation to perform the information into a form that is usable in the observed action brain’s storage systems ○ AMID (Attention, Memory, Imitation, NOT limited to turning sensory information Desire) into signals for the brain ○ Storage To hold on to the information for some period of time Period of time will be different lengths, Models of Memory depending on the system of memory being used In another system of memory, people hold on to ★ Information-processing model information more or less permanently (I think ○ Focuses on the way information is muscle memory can apply) handled, or processed, through three ○ Retrieval different stages of memory Getting information they know they have out of ○ Assumes that the length of time that a storage memory will be remembered depends on the stage of memory in which it is stored ○ “Big picture” view ★ Parallel distributed processing (PDP) model ○ Derived from work in the development of 7  artificial intelligence ○ SIMULTANEOUS processing allows people to retrieve many different aspects Information-Processing Model of memory all at once ○ Related to connectionism, the use of ★ Three Memory Systems artificial neural networks to explain the ○ Sensory memory mental abilities of humans First stage of memory ○ Less about the mechanics of memory and Information enters the nervous system through more about the connection and timing of sensory systems (eyes, ears, etc.) memory processes Two kinds of sensory memory ★ Levels-of-processing model Iconic (visual) ○ More repetition helps retain information ○ Only lasts for a fraction of a in the long-term second ○ Deeper processing associated with longer ○ Icon is the Greek word for retention “image” Capacity of Iconic Memory ○ Study by George Sperling Information-Processing Model ○ Introduced partial report method ○ Everything that can be seen at one ★ Short-Term Memory time ○ If a sensory message is important enough, Duration of Iconic Memory it moves from sensory memory to ○ Masking short-term memory (STM). Information in the iconic ○ Holds memories for 30 seconds or more memory will be replaced ○ Selective attention by new information very The ability to focus on only one quickly stimulus from among all sensory ○ Eidetic Imagery input Ability to access a visual Allows information to enter the sensory memory over a STM system long time - similar to Stimulus that’s “important” enough photographic memory will be analyzed for meaning Function of Iconic Memory 8 ○ Cocktail-party effect ○ Microsaccades You hear your name in a noisy Tiny eye movements that room even if you aren’t focusing keep images from fading on the background noise when we stare ○ Broadbent and Treisman’s Theory ○ Holds a visual snapshot of what Selective attention you see for a very short time Ability to focus on only one ○ Gives your brain a moment to stimulus from all sensory decide if something is important input Echoic (auditory) Stage 1 ○ Brief memory of something a ○ Incoming stimuli in person has heard sensory memory are ○ Allows you to “hear” an echo of a filtered based on statement in your head physical ○ Limited to what can be heard at characteristics one moment and is smaller than Stage 2 the capacity of iconic memory ○ Only important ○ Unselected sensory stimuli aren’t information that completely lost but are lessened, so meets a certain important information can still be threshold is noticed processed ○ Short-term memory tends to be ○ Working Memory encoded in auditory form Storage and manipulation of information Active system that processes the information Three interrelated systems ○ Central Executive Controls and coordinates the two other systems 9  Interprets both visual Capacity and auditory information ★ George Miller and puts it all ○ Conducted an experiment where people were given a together digit-span test ○ Visual “sketchpad” Digi-span refers to the number of items that a Will contain person can hold in working memory images ○ Concluded that the capacity of short term memory is ○ Auditory action between five and nine items of information, with seven “recorder” being a convenient range Plays the ★ Chunking audio or ○ Recognizing information into familiar groups “music” (918-899-3212) increase the STM capacity by creating, fewer, and larger chunk Why is it called short term? ★ Short term ○ Short term memory lasts for 12 to 30 seconds without rehearsal ○ Maintenance rehearsal Continuously focusing on information to keep it in STM Information will stay in STM until rehearsal stops ○ Interference Occurs when STM capacity has exceeded Causes existing information to be pushed out by new data A way to remember a person’s name is to remember their appearance it will move the information to long-term memory 10  Long-term memory Types of long-term information ★ Long-term memory (LTM) ★ Nondeclarative (implicit) memory ○ Third stage of memory ○ Memory for skills ○ System where information is kept more or less ○ Skills have to be demonstrated not reported permanently ○ Memories for things that people know how to ○ Capacity seems to be unlimited do ★ Duration ○ Procedural memory ○ A relatively permanent physical change in the You perform tasks brain when a memory is formed ○ Priming ○ Memories can be available but not accessible Improve in identifying certain ○ Rote learning concepts because you have no prior Repeating information over and again to experience remember it (maintenance rehearsal) ○ Memory associations ○ Elaborative rehearsal Learn through classical or operant Transfers information from STM to conditioning even if you’re not LTM by making it meaningful consciously aware of it A method to do this is by ○ Cerebellum in the hindbrain stores memories connecting information to of conditioned responses, skills, and habits something familiar ○ Anterograde amnesia New long term declarative memories can’t be formed Long-term memory organization People with damage to the hippocampus have this amnesia ★ Organization ○ Procedural memories are stored in a part of ○ Organized in terms of related meanings and the brain separate from declarative memory concepts ○ Even people with Alzheimer’s retain ○ Semantic network model procedural skills like walking, talking, etc. Information in the brain is stored in a ★ Declarative (explicit) memory connected way with related concepts ○ Memory for facts stored closer together (links in one paper ○ Facts can be known and declared lead to another related paper) ○ Semantic memory Type of declarative memory involving 11  general knowledge Refers to meaning Retrieval of Long-term memories Semantic memory covers meanings of words, concepts, terms, etc ★ Retrieval Cues ○ Episodic memory ○ A stimulus for remembering Type of declarative memory involving ○ Maintenance rehearsal only gives one kind personal experiences and personal of retrieval cue history The sound of the word or phrase Called episodic memory because it Not effective for LTM represents episodes from your life ○ Multiple retrieval cues make retrieval of Unlike procedural and semantic information easier memory, episodic memories are ○ Context-dependent learning frequently updated and revised Physical surroundings a person is in Updating process acts as a when they’re learning specific survival mechanism information Allows us to forget Remembering is better when you’re unimportant details of our in the same environment where everyday lives learning occurred ○ State-dependent learningMemories formed in a specific physiological or psychological Recall and Recognition state are easier to recall when in a similar state ★ Recall ○ Memories are retrieved with few or no external cues ★ Retrieval failure ○ Tip of the Tongue (TOT) Phenomenon Struggle to recall a word even if you know how long it is or what the starting/ending letter is When you stop actively trying, the brain works on retrieval in the background 12  Recall and Recognition Recall and Recognition ★ Serial Position Effect ○ Information at the beginning and the end ★ Recognition of a list is more easily remembered ○ Matching information to what is already in ○ “Prejudice” in memory retrieval memory ★ Primacy effect ○ Easier to recall since the cue is an actual object, ○ First words in a list are remembered more word, sound, etc. easily because they get more rehearsal time ○ Works well for images ★ Recency effect ○ False positive ○ The last words in a list are more easily When someone mistakenly believes they remembered because they’re still in the recognize something that isn’t actually in STM with no new information to interfere memory with the retrieval Classic Studies in Psychology Automatic Encoding ★ Elizabeth Loftus ★ Automatic Encoding ○ Researcher in the area of memory ○ Some long-term memories enter permanent ○ Focuses on the inaccuracies of memory storage with little or no effort retrieval ○ People unconsciously remember a lot of things ○ Expert consultant in hundreds of trials ○ Flashbulb memories (including Ted Bundy) Vivid, detailed memories of highly ○ Proved the constructive processing view of emotional events memory retrieval ○ Emotional reactions release hormones that ○ Information learned after an event can strengthen the formation of long term memories easily distort the accuracy of memories ○ Misinformation effect Happens when information learned after an event interferes with the original memory of what happened 13  Reliability of memory retrieval Forgetting ★ False-memory syndrome ○ Happens when false memories are ★ Mr. S created through the suggestions of ○ Famous mnemonist who was unable to forget lists of others numbers ○ Often during hypnosis ○ Couldn’t separate trivial information from Hypnosis can make it easier to important information recall some real memories ○ Invented a way to “forget things” It can also create false memories Wrote them down on a piece of paper and ○ Formed like real memories then burned it ○ People can confuse imagine and real ★ Ebbinghaus and the forgetting curve images ○ Studies forgetting using nonsense syllables ○ Resemble confabulations and involve ○ Memorized a list, waited, and then tested his reduced activity in brain areas tied to memory, creating the curve of forgetting doubt and skepticism ○ Forgetting happens quickly within the first hour Confabulations are made up after learning but then tapers gradually stories that aren’t intended to ○ Forgetting is greatest after learning deceive ★ Encoding failure ○ False memories are more likely to form ○ The failure to process information into memory if the memories are plausible ★ Memory trace decay theory ○ Two steps for forming false memories ○ A physical change in the brain that occurs when a Event must seem plausible memory is formed People are given information ○ If memory traces aren’t used over time, they decay that makes them believe that the ○ When referring to LTM, decay theory is usually event happened to them called disuse personally ★ Interference theory ○ Personality traits can increase ○ Although LTM are stored permanently in the brain, susceptibility to false memories these memories may not always be accessible to retrieval because other information interferes ○ Two types of interference that can affect LTM retrieval Proactive interference 14  Neuroscience of Memory Happens when previously learned material interferes with the learning ★ Neuroscience of Memory and retrieval of new material ○ Areas in the brain where different types Retroactive interference of memory are formed Happens when newer information Procedural memories interferes with the retrieval of older Cerebellum information Short-term memories The prefrontal cortex and the temporal lobe Hippocampus and Memory Semantic and episodic long-term memories ★ Henry Gustav Molaison (H.M.) Frontal and temporal ○ Suffered from severe epileptic seizures lobes ○ Had his hippocampi and medial temporal lobe ○ Physical changes involved in memory structures removed Changes in the number of ○ Because of it getting removed he couldn’t form receptor sites new declarative memories anymore Changes in synapse sensitivity Hippocampus allowed him to consolidate through repeated stimulation and store new factual information (long-term potentiation) ○ His procedural memory was still intact Changes in dendrites and the proteins in the neurons ○ 4E-Bp2 Organic Amnesia Protein in mammals that controls production of new nervous ★ Repression system proteins ○ Type of psychological motivated forgetting where a Essential for strengthening person can’t remember a traumatic event neuron connections and ★ Forms of severe loss of memory disorders communication ○ Caused by concussions, trauma-induced brain injuries ○ Consolidation Alteration and the other changes that take place during memory formation 15  Process in the brain that converts short-term memories into long ★ Retrograde Amnesia term ones ○ The inability to recall memories from before Can take minutes for some getting an injury memories or years for some ○ Happens because consolidation process is disrupted ○ Prevents memories that were not fully stored from becoming permanent ★ Anterograde Amnesia Health and Memory ○ Inability to recall memories after getting an injury ★ Everyday life or illness ○ Rehearsing memories during both sleep and ○ People with this amnesia can’t form new wakefulness helps with memory consolidation declarative memories ○ Can learn while asleep, but you have to be ★ Alzheimer’s Disease reviewing old information rather than learning ○ Early stages involve anterograde amnesia and the something new progresses to retrograde amnesia ○ Sleep deprivation impairs the hippocampus, which ○ Neurons producing acetylcholine (ACh) which is is vital for forming new memories vital for memory, break down early in Alzheimer’s ○ Exercise improves memories, because of the ○ Everyday learning stimulates brain derived increased release of norepinephrine neurotrophic factors (BDNF), a protein aiding (neurotransmitter involved in memory) memory formation ★ Infantile Amnesia ○ Due to how early memories are implicit, which are hard to bring to consciousness ○ Explicit memory which is more verbal and conscious develops around age 2 when the hippocampus and language skills mature 16