Psychology Unit 3 Notes PDF

~Psychology 3/4 Summary Notes~ UNIT 3: Nervous System Functions AREA OF STUDY ONE DOT POINT 1: The roles of different subdivisions of the central and peripheral nervous systems in [responding to, and processing and coordinating wit...

~Psychology 3/4 Summary Notes~ UNIT 3: Nervous System Functions AREA OF STUDY ONE DOT POINT 1: The roles of different subdivisions of the central and peripheral nervous systems in [responding to, and processing and coordinating with, sensory stimuli received by the body to enable conscious and unconscious responses], including [spinal reflexes] DOT POINT 2: [the role of neurotransmitters] in the [transmission of neural information] [across a neural synapse] to produce excitatory effects (as with glutamate) or inhibitory effects (as with gamma-aminobutyric acid [GABA]) as compared to [neuromodulators] (such as dopamine and serotonin) that have a range of effects on brain activity DOT POINT 3: [synaptic plasticity1] – resulting from [long–term potentiation and long–term depression2], which together act to modify connections between neurons [(sprouting,rerouting and pruning)3] – as the fundamental mechanism of memory formation that leads to learning DOT POINT 4: [internal and external stressors2] causing [psychological and physiological3] [stress1] [responses, including the flight-or-fight-or freeze response in acute stress and the role of cortisol in chronic stress3] DOT POINT 5: [the gut–brain axis (GBA) as an area of emerging research, with reference to the interaction of gut microbiota with stress and the nervous system in the control of psychological processes and behaviour1] DOT POINT 6: [the explanatory power of Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome as a biological model of stress, including alarm reaction (shock/counter shock), resistance and exhaustion1] DOT POINT 7: [the explanatory power of Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman’s Transactional Model of Stress and Coping to explain stress as a psychological process (primary and secondary appraisal only)1] DOT POINT 8: Use of [strategies(approach and avoidance)1] for coping with stress and improving mental, wellbeing, [including context-specific effectiveness2] and [coping flexibility3] CCCCCDOT POINT ONE: Conscious and Unconscious ResponsesCCCCCCC DP1: The roles of different subdivisions of the central and peripheral nervous systems in [responding to, and processing and coordinating with, sensory stimuli received by the body to enable conscious and unconscious responses], including [spinal reflexes] Central Nervous System Structure (CNS) - Comprises of the brian and spinal cord - The brain/ nervous system is constantly processing stimuli, detected by sensory receptors which respond to different information from both internal and external environments Conscious vs Unconscious - Neurons have different appearances due to different ways of communication - Our unconscious response are noticeable like eg. blinking as its involuntary but we can still be aware of it Conscious Response - Voluntary= ‘intentional reaction’ - Reaction involving awareness - eg. talking, walking ,waving your hand (somatic nervous system functioning) - Reaction (even momentarily) will have purpose and have some degree of control over it Example of Conscious Response: When you step outside and you feel the air temperature you will make a conscious response when you decide whether to put on a jacket. - Conscious response may be made to an internal stimulus. ( the occurrence of a stomach ache, and what decision you make depending on the severity of the ache) Unconscious Response - Involuntary - Reaction involving Unawareness - We cannot ordinarily control it its occurrence - ANS response regulate automatically without conscious effort meaning we don’t have to consciously think about its response eg. how fast your heart is beating - Reflective responses (autonomic reflexes) Sometimes we need to react quickly that there is no time for conscious thoughts These involve the contraction of the skeletal muscles Awareness is not apart of the reflex itself CCCCCDOT POINT ONE: Conscious and Unconscious ResponsesCCCCCCC DP1: The roles of different subdivisions of the central and peripheral nervous systems in [responding to, and processing and coordinating with, sensory stimuli received by the body to enable conscious and unconscious responses], including [spinal reflexes] Spinal Reflexes - Is an unconscious, automatic response controlled by neural circuits in the spinal cord (independent of the brain) - Referred to as the ‘reflex arc’ (as incoming stimulus is reflected back from the spinal without input from the brain) - The immediate response at the spinal cord is what is enabling a faster reaction time - Is a fraction of a second before it reaches the brain Example of Spinal Reflexes: - If you were to touch a hot metal handle you would AUTOMATICALLY take away your hand before any sensory information could travel all the way to the brain so that pain is not experienced. Sensory receptors in skin would detect the heat and send neural messages to the first contact in CNS which is the spinal cord. It responds with one or more motor neurons to move the right muscles within the hand to release the heated object. (this is called the withdrawal reflex) - are considered adaptive (save time in situations) - Causes minimal harm even by that fraction of a second - Spinal reflex demonstrate that a response to a particular sensory stimulus can have both an unconscious and conscious component (one occurring before the other) - Each reflex action all have small no. neurons that convert sensory stimulus into action 3 include: ➔ Sensory neuron Afferent= transit sensory information from body to brain ➔ Interneuron Transmit information between sensory and motor neurons ➔ Motor neuron Efferent= transmit sensory information from brain to body CCCcCDOT POINT TWO:Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators CCCccc DP2:[the role of neurotransmitters³] in the [transmission of neural information²] [across a neural synapse¹] to produce excitatory effects (as with glutamate) or inhibitory effects (as with gamma-aminobutyric acid [GABA]) as compared to [neuromodulators⁴] (such as dopamine and serotonin) that have a range of effects on brain activity Structure of Neurons¹ Dendrites= receives incoming neural messages Soma= the body of a neuron, contains nucleus with genetic material for the neuron Axon= the pathway down which the neural message travels Myelin sheath= fatty tissue that encases the axon to aid it in speed of transmission Axon terminals= exit pathways for neural messages to make their way to the next neuron Terminal buttons (synaptic knobs)= releases a chemical substance, known as neurotransmitter to receiving neuron for communication purposes Neural Communication² - Neurons communicate by sending neurotransmitter across the space between the terminal buttons of one neuron to another - The space is the Synaptic gap Site where communication typically occurs between adjacent neurons Two components are the terminal buttons (sending neurons) and the dendrites (receiving neurons) Referred to as synapse Neurotransmitters= chemical substance produced by a neuron that carries messages to other neurons. It binds itself to receptor sites of the postsynaptic neuron (specialises in receiving specific neurotransmitters) Reuptake=Neurotransmitters that are not bound to receptors in the postsynaptic neuron are reabsorbed back into the terminal buttons. - Once the postsynaptic neuron has received the neurotransmitter at remaining neurotransmitters left in the synapse will be reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron CCCcCDOT POINT TWO:Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators CCCccc What happens: - Neural impulse runs from dendrites down the axon to the axon terminals - Terminal buttons release a chemical substance - Neurotransmitters crosses the synapse - Neurotransmitters is picked up by receiving neuron via dendrites The Role of Neurotransmitters³ - Specific types of Neurotransmitters will have either two effects. Either Excitatory or Inhibitory - Excitatory activates the postsynaptic neuron to perform its function - Inhibitory blocks the postsynaptic neurons from firing Excitatory Neurotransmitters - Increases the likelihood that the neuron will fire in action potential - Allows brain to form a pathway Example: Glutamate (memory) sends signals to other cells to create large brain networks. It helps with formation and retrieval of memory and enables learning. (spreading and activating). Glutamate won’t occur when calming down (going to bed) CCCcCDOT POINT TWO:Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators CCCccc  Inhibitory Neurotransmitters - Decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire in action potential Action potential= inhibitory/neural messages - Is calm and slow causing less anxiety (stress and fear) Example: Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a type of inhibitory neurotransmitters that blocks or inhibits brain signals (calming) Some neurotransmitters can influence the action of other neurotransmitters, called neuromodulators. Glutamate and GABA are the most common neurotransmitters in the CNS. Neurons use these two chemical messages to communicate with each other Glutamate GABA - Main excitatory neurotransmitter in CNS - Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS - Enhances information transmission by - Works throughout brain to make making postsynaptic neurons more likely to postsynaptic less likely to fire fire - One role is to fine-tune neurotransmission - Involved in most brain functions (learning, in the brain and maintain neurotransmission at memory, perception, thinking and movement) best possible level - Crucial role in synaptic change occurring in - Without it the activation might get out of learning and memory control - Excitatory effect promote health and growth - Anxiety has been connected to GABA as it - Can be harmful to neurons as it needs the impacts the regulation of neural transmission right amount of glutamate to be released in the right places The role of neuromodulators⁴ - Neuromodulators enhance inhibitory and excitatory effects and create more widespread impacts modulators= meaning change( to have an impact on) - Spreads fast - Involved in enhancing (bigger group that last longer) - One neurotransmitters spreads different and have a bigger impact - Working together to enhance function Why do we need them? - So that we are not overstimulated as we would never stop if we didn’t have them DOT POINT TWO:Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators  Difference between Neurotransmitters and Neuromdoulators? - Neurotransmitter is from neuron to neuron (much fastest) - Nueromodulators is from neuron to bigger areas (slower to spread) - Mechanically they are the same but have different impacts Dopamine Serotonin - Is about excitement and pleasure - Is a mood stabiliser - Is apart of reward system - General state of wellbeing - Connects to addiction - Longer term that is included in mood - Is involved in drive, motivation and motor stabilisation movements - Irregular serotonin levels lead to mental - The sense of reward comes with pleasure health issues (depression and anxiety) - Lack of dopamine leads to parkinsons - Plays role in digestion and metabolism - High levels of dopamine lead to - Low levels cause sleep issues and OCD schizophrenia - Cause pain perception and dysregulated appetite DOT POINT THREE: Synaptic Plasticity DP3:[synaptic plasticity1] – resulting from [long–term potentiation and long–term depression2], which together act to modify connections between neurons [(sprouting,rerouting and pruning3] – as the fundamental mechanism of memory formation that leads to learning Synaptic Plasticity1 Neural plasticity - Evident in physical changes taking place at the synapse - Where multiple neurons connection to form neural pathways - Commonly called synaptic plasticity - development (growth) - Adaptive (recovery) Synaptic plasticity= ability of the synapse to change in response to experience - Controls how effectively two neurons communicate with each other - Strengthening of neurons may occur through growth of synaptic connections - Weakening may occur through disuse of synaptic connection (eliminating the synapse) - Is the biological basis of learning and memory formation Through synaptic plasticity the can brain recognize and reassign its neural connections based on which parts of it are underused (constantly remodelled by experience) Learning and memory formation in the Synapse - We learn through the constant stream of new experiences in everyday life our brain modifies - Existing connections can strengthen during learning (memory) which makes the communication across a pathway easier next time Long–term Potentiation and Long–term Depression2 - Are enduring changes in the synaptic strength brought about by specific patterns at the synapse - Modify connections between neurons and can be considered fundamental to learning and memory Long-term Potentiation - Long lasting enhancement of synaptic transmission due to repeated strong stimulation - Increase in synaptic strength through high frequency stimulation of neural pathway - Is clear and fast (hebb's rule 1949) “cells that fire together, wire together” DISCLAIMER: NEURONS DO NOT TOUCH OR MOVE - Has significant improvement in the ability of presynaptic and postsynaptic - Strengthen synaptic connection enabling postsynaptic neurons to be easily activated (becomes more responsive to the presynaptic) CCCCCCCCCCCCC DOT POINT THREE: Synaptic Plasticity CCCCCCCCCCCCC  - The more connection is strengthened and the relevant neural pathway is strength increasing the efficiency is transferring information along the pathway - The information being remembered the more LTP process strengthen the pathway making it easier to retrieve the information later Long-term Depression - Is the long-lasting decrease in the strength of synaptic transmission and neural response (opposite of LTP) - Reduction of efficiency of synaptic connections - weakening/fading results from lack of stimulation of pre and postsynaptic neurons - As postsynaptic becomes less responsive to the neurotransmitter it weakens the synaptic connections - LTD may be just as important for learning and memory as LTP - Elimination of unused synapse through LTD may result in pruning of unwanted synaptic connections - May enable old/unused memories/connections from previously learned information to be cleared out Connection between LTD and LTP - Although they have opposite outcomes the are increasing and decreasing synaptic excitability - One increases neurotransmitters released in the presynaptic while the other doesn’t Many similarities include: - Both activity dependent - Both include glutamate and occur at glutamate synapse - Both changes in excitability - Both have long-lasting effects Sprouting,Rerouting and Pruning3 Sprouting: - Is the creation of new connections between neurons - Occurs through growth of nerve endings (‘spouts’) on axon or dendrites - It can split, change and thicken Rerouting: - Involved in establishing neural connections by creating alternate pathways - Forming of new routes - May involve existing synaptic connections Pruning: - Involved in removing old neural connections that are adequately activated - Experience determines which synapse will be retained/streagnths and which will be pruned - Entire purpose occurs as if the rule was “use it or lose it” is being followed CCCCCCCCCCcccccccCCC DOT POINT FOUR: Stress CCCCCCCCCccccccccccc  DP4: [internal and external stressors2] causing [psychological and physiological3] [stress1] [responses, including the flight-or-fight-or freeze response in acute stress and the role of cortisol in chronic stress3] Stress1 What is stress? - Is a psychological and physiological state of tension in response to a stimulus (internal or external stressor) - Considered to be a psychobiological response - Stress can affect different people in different ways depending on the type of stressors - Is often voluntary and involve a pattern that allows us to become aware of the stressor eg. heartbeat pounding - Psychological responses to stress have two categories Emotional and cognitive Emotional= changes when experiencing stress influences the way a person feels. Feeling anxious as the body does not have balance Cognitive= changes associated with stress influenced by a person's mental health. Their perceptions of their environment. How they think and learn Example: a student going through a breakup may constantly think about the problem in the relationship and they may interfere with their school work Distress= stress characterised by negative psychological state (hampers performance) Ustress= stress characterised by a positive psychological state (enhances performance) Internal and External Stressors2 Stressor= any stimulus that produces stress - Virtually anything can be a stressor, it may be a condition, thought, feeling, person, object, situation, event etc Stressor is described in different ways: - Can be a physical stimulus (extreme temperature,intense light/noise) - Can be psychological in nature (an argument with a friend) - Can be described as having an internal and external source Internal External - Originates within the individual - Originates outside the individual from - Example: a personal problem causes situations and events in the environment concern about the experience of physical - Example: having too much homework pain that may be perceived as signalling an untimely illness CCCCCCCCCCcccccccCCC DOT POINT FOUR: Stress CCCCCCCCCccccccccccc Responses, including the flight-or-fight-or freeze response in acute stress and the role of cortisol in chronic stress3 Acute Stress: Stress that lasts for a relatively short time, allowing the body to bounce back well from acute stress if managed by the person. - Has negative effects as it elevates blood pressure and reduces motivation - Beneficial as it helps to accomplish assignments and enhances problem solving ability - If experience is severe (victim of assault) can lead to significant mental health problems Chronic Stress: - Stress that continues for a prolonged period of time. - Involves ongoing demands, pressures and worries that are constant and long- lasting - Involves circumstances such as ongoing financial problems or even long-lasting health problems - When stress persists over an extended period of time it is likely to be harmful in some way to our health - Stress can also be cumulative cumulative= number of stressors occur at the same time or one after that other and the persons has not had the opportunity or time to recover Fight- Flight or Freeze in response in Acute Stress - More prominent in acute stress - can include adaptive response that gives body the necessary resources to maximise survival - We apply those resources to ourselves FFF: Involuntary physiological changes The fight-or-flight-or-freeze response is an involuntary response to a threatening, fearful or otherwise stressful situation, involving physiological changes produced by the sympathetic nervous system in readiness for: fight — confronting and fighting off the threat flight — escaping by running away to safety freeze — keeping absolutely still and silent to avoid detection. CCCCCCCCCCcccccccCCC DOT POINT FOUR: Stress CCCCCCCCCccccccccccc Fight- Flight reactions - When our wellbeing is threatened two immediate options are to either fight off the threat or escape. To prepare the body all energy is directed from non-essential body systems to those systems that will help us either “outrun” or “out fight” the threat - Both involve a physiological stress response The stress response process The hypothalamus responds to the stressor by activating the sympathetic nervous system in less than 1/20th of a second. The sympathetic nervous system then stimulates the adrenal medulla which secrete hormones (adrenaline/noradrenaline) into the bloodstream. These stress hormones circulate in the blood, activating various organs boosting other physiological processes that prepare the body for action. Next, in the second part of the stress response, the hypothalamus stimulates the nearby pituitary gland to initiate a process (called the HPA axis) for secretion of additional stress hormones These hormones are released from the outer layer (cortex) of the adrenal glands. The bodily changes that characterise the fight and flight reactions resulting from the sympathetic nervous system and stress hormone actions include: increased heart rate and blood pressure redistribution of blood supply from the skin and intestines to the skeletal muscles increased breathing rate increased glucose secretion by the liver dilation of the pupils suppression of functions that are not immediately essential in order to conserve energy and which can be delayed without damage to the organism CCCCCCCCCCcccccccCCC DOT POINT FOUR: Stress CCCCCCCCCccccccccccc Example: These and other changes associated with fight and flight occur within seconds, thereby allowing us to react very quickly to the threat at hand. Once the threat has passed, the parasympathetic system calms and restores normal functioning. The sympathetic nervous system functions like the accelerator pedal in a car. It triggers fight or flight reactions, providing the body with a burst of energy so that it can respond to perceived dangers. The parasympathetic nervous system acts like the car’s brake, slowing the body after the danger has passed. Freeze Fight or flight may be too overpowering in the evident of a potential threat that our immediate reaction is remaining motionless. Meaning there is no effort to run or hide. - Body movements stop, heart rate slows down, blood pressure drops very quickly, tense muscles collapse becoming still. (immobility occurs) The initial part of freeze goes by a “stop, look and listen” behavioural response. This can be associated with a stressor that causes fear. - Freezing assess the stimulation before making a decision on what to do - A genuine freeze is not a conscious decision Frozen state= tonic immobility - Frozen state conserves energy until a predator loses interest Biological process - Not completely understood - The energy conserved is relaxing and resting relating to the parasympathetic nervous system which dominates over the existing effects of the sympathetic nervous system activation. - Due to the parasympathetic dominance, it may be the reason for being unable to move Highly aroused physiological state involving both energy conservation (parasympathetic system) and readiness for action (sympathetic system) CCCCCCCCCCcccccccCCC DOT POINT FOUR: Stress CCCCCCCCCccccccccccc Role of cortisol in chronic stress - Has a wider range of functions than other stress hormones and is involved in both response to an acute stressor like a threatening event as well as chronic stress - Cortisol acts slowly and its effects last longer than other stress hormones - Helps keep the body elevated of arousal even after the fight or flight or freeze response, which allows the body to continue to deal with stress for a longer period - The level of cortisol circulating the blood stream is used to measure stress by researchers - Immediate effect in response go a stressor energises the body by increasing the energy supply like blood sugar and enhances metabolism Example: cortisol acts upon the liver to make it secrete glucose into the bloodstream for the muscles to use as an energy source - Cortisol turns off all bodily systems not immediately required to deal with a stressor - Cortisol has anti-inflammatory effect by blocking activity of white blood cells CCCCCCCCcccccCC DOT POINT FIVE: Gut-Brain Axis CCCCCCCCcccccccccc DP5:[the gut–brain axis (GBA) as an area of emerging research, with reference to the interaction of gut microbiota with stress and the nervous system in the control of psychological processes and behaviour1] Gut-brain axis Gut - brain axis = the relationship between the gut and brain (second brain) Gut = enteric nervous system Brain = central nervous system - The feeling of butterflies or even gut feelings are caused by the brain gut axis - There are multiple pathways linked between the brain and enteric nervous system - Information flows back forth between the gastrointestinal tract and brain continuously - Gastrointestinal also known as ‘digestive tract’ Gut-brian axis - Connection point (cycle) - Two way communication link between the central and enteric nervous system. - Involves indirect and direct pathways between cognitive and emotional areas within the brain with the digestive tract Example: after feeling stress we may have a sore stomach due to signals from the brain to the gut Disruption in the gut can cause change in moods and affects emotion, arousal, motivation, behaviour and cognitive functions The gut microbiota and brain also communicate with each other within the gut-brain axis. - Microbiota can also have effects on mental health processes. It can influence the production of serotonin and other neurotransmitters within the gut - Chemical agents produced by the gut microbiota enter the bloodstream and communicate with the brain and other organs (heart,liver) Gut Microbiota microbiota (complex, enormously varied) = living organisms that live in our gi tracts and maintaining gut health and functioning (bacteria, good & bad) fungi ,virsues - The gut is involved in processing food, absorbing nutrients, and excreting waste. - Within the gut, there are living organisms called microbiota that maintain gut health and functioning - Foods such as yoghurt, kimchi, pickled vegetables, and miso are high probiotic foods that contain live microbiota. CCCCCCCCCcccccCCC DOT POINT FIVE: Gut-Brain Axis CCCCCCCCcccccccccc A biome is an area for a community of living things, and your gut becomes its own microbiome due to all the microbiota living there. Microbiome= not fixed as its composition can be affected by both internal and external factors like diet, infection, disease Components of the gi tract = brain - oesophagus - vagus nerve - stomach - large intestine - small intestine - vagus nerve The vagus nerve relays messages between the gut and the brain. - 10–20% of nerve fibres in the vagus nerve are involved in conveying information from the brain to the gut - 80–90% are responsible for conveying information from the gut to the brain The gut is the largest storage space in the body for serotonin (it accounts for 95% of the body’s serotonin). What is the vagus nerve? - The most important nerve in our parasympathetic nervous systems, playing a role in the regulation of our mood, immune response, digestion, and heart rates. Microbiotas connection to stress Mayer et al (2015) conducted a study on animals that had microorganisms from their gut microbiota removed in order to better understand the relationship between stress and gut health. - The results showed the animals were found to secrete more stress hormone, and showed anxiety-like behaviours - Recent research on humans shows unhealthy gut microbiota is linked to higher stress levels, anxiety disorders, cognitive decline, and autism. - Lower diversity imbalance of microbiota increases stress  CCCCCCCCCccccC DOT POINT SIX: Biological model of stress CCCCCCCCcccccc DP6:[the explanatory power of as a biological model of stress, including alarm reaction (shock/counter shock), resistance and exhaustion1] Stage one: Alarm Reaction - Occurs when person becomes aware of the stressor - Body at first goes into a state of shock as the ability to deal with the stressors drops below normal - Body reacts as if it were injured (decrease in body temperature, blood pressure etc) - Countershock occurs when the sympathetic nervous system is activated and the body's resistance to the stressor increases - Like a freeze reaction (parasympathetic) Stage two: Resistance - If the source of the stressor is not dealt with immediately the state of stress continues - Energy is required meaning the body will continue to response in order to cope with the stressor - Body enters stage of resistance - Stressor rises above normal - Intense arousal diminishes through parasympathetic nervous system (even though parasympathetic calms body down the arousal remains above normal) - All physiological process are shut down - Cortisol supports resistance that continuously is being released into the bloodstream - Cortisol suppress immune system (fights disease and protects itself against damage) Stage three: Exhaustion - If stressor does not deal with the stress immediately within the resistance stage the body may reach exhaustion - Some alarm reactions may reappear - Body cannot sustain resistance and the effects of the stressor are no longer dealt with - Weak resistance to disease - Heightens the risk of mental and psychical disorders Fatigue Sleep disturbances Loss of concentration Anxiety attacks Depression Crying etc This stage brings signs of physical “wear and tear” (especially in organs that are dealing with the stressor) CCCCCCCCCccccC DOT POINT SIX: Biological model of stress CCCCCCCCcccccc Strengths and limitations Strengths - Evidence of relationship between stress and illness - Highlights predictable pattern which can be measured in individual Limitations - It was conducted on rats not humans - Doesn’t account of individual differences (we don’t all reach exhaustion) - Non specific stress response may be limited - Different stressors have different reactions - Different people have different reactions - Different experiences could lead to a different stress response allostatic= the body's changing stress response according to need CcCCCCCDOT POINT SEVEN:L +F transactional model of stress and coping CCccccc  DP7:[the explanatory power of Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman’s Transactional Model of Stress and Coping to explain stress as a psychological process (primary and secondary appraisal only)1] 0xc v Coping Resources - Talking/ silent - Crying - Anger - yelling - Excited- preparing/ think - yoga / sport - Mindfulness - Talking to a teacher/peer (asking for help) Strengths Limitations - Accounts for individual differences - Not systematic or experimental due to subjective - Personal approach for everyone nature of data collected - Responses will be different - Overlap of primary and secondary appraisal stages - Response through reappraisal - Unscientific (systematic) - Different response over time - They do not talk about anything biological (physical - Talks about thoughts and feelings (how we think elements) and feel) - Too much happening in our lives to isolate this model CCCCCCCCCCcccccCCC DOT POINT EIGHT: Coping with Stress CCCCCCCCccccccccccCCCCC 5[DP8:Use of [strategies(approach and avoidance)1] for coping with stress and improving mental, wellbeing, [including context-specific effectiveness2] and [coping flexibility3] Strategies(approach and avoidance) Approach - Are we dealing the problem more towards (getting to the root of the issue) - Effort to confront the stressor - Engaging Avoidance - Moving away from the problem (not always bad) - Effort to evade the stressor - Disengaging Strategies for coping - Exercise physically uses up cortisol, making us feel better - Can be social (being connected and heard), we need social connection - Physically relaxing (stretching out muscles/moving, using up cortisol) - Meditation (emotional relaxation, calming your mind) - alcohol/drugs- numbing, distraction, physical sensation (changing the way we feel) Context-specific effectiveness How effective is your coping strategy in really targeting the situation? How useful is this strategy for your particular situation? How good a fit? - When the coping strategy used is appropriate for the unique demand of the stressor Coping flexibility - Adjusting the way we cope - Ability to change one's coping strategy depending on the unique and changing demands of a stressor - Research demonstrates that individuals with high levels of coping flexibility are linked to a lower incidence of mental illness and a higher incidence of positive outcomes Sympathetic/ Parasympathetic NTS and NM - Stress Neuromdoulators Survival (adaptive functions) - Increase and decrease the ○ Pupils dilate (more light, can see more) excitability/responsiveness of neurons to ○ Sweating (cool us) neurotransmitter signals across a ○ Accelerated heart rate (blood moving widespread brain region or brain tissue. faster, more oxygen in brain and muscles, - Neuron to network moving quickly to brain and muscles) ○ Adds to /enhances a message ○ Adrenaline and cortisol are released - Much slower (enables us to move quickly) - Serotonin ○ Slow digestion (redirecting the energy to - Dopamine FFF (GBA) - Both enhancing the effectiveness the ○ Fight-flight response of a neurotransmitter ○ Lungs constrict (constrict meaning turning - Can enhance a receptor site back to normal after being inflamed) - Slower to arrive but slower to leave Parasympathetic ○ Calm down Neurotransmitter ○ body back to normal (achieving Glutamate (excitatory) homeostasis) - Associated with memory and learning ○ Freeze GABA (inhibitory) - Low levels= calms - High levels=stressed - Neuron to neuron - Quick to send + reuptake Plasticity Transmission Repeated neurotransmission allows for the brain’s Presynaptic neuron= sending message plasticity to change due to experience Axon leads to axon terminals Vesicles (contains neurotransmitters) Long-term Potentiation: Released into synapse/synaptic gap - Active over time Binds to receptor site on the postsynaptic neuron’s dendrite) Long-term Depression: Reuptake of any that don’t bind - Not activating over time sprouting= new dendrite endings (new pathways, on the neuron itself)  ~Psychology 3/4 Summary Notes~ UNIT 3: Nervous System Functions AREA OF STUDY TWO DOT POINT 1: Behaviourist approaches to Learning behaviourist approaches to learning, as illustrated by classical conditioning as a three-phase process (before conditioning, during conditioning and after conditioning) that results in the involuntary association between a neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response,and operant conditioning as a three-phase process (antecedent, behaviour and consequence) involving reinforcement (positive and negative) and punishment (positive and negative) DOT POINT 2: Social-cognitive approaches to learning social-cognitive approaches to learning, as illustrated by observational learning as a process involving attention, retention, reproduction, motivation and reinforcement DOT POINT 3:Learner within a system (ATSI) approaches to learning that situate the learner within a system, as illustrated by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ways of knowing where learning is viewed as being embedded in relationships where the learner is part of a multimodal system of knowledge patterned on Country DOT POINT 4: Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory the explanatory power of the Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory in the encoding, storage and retrieval of stored information in sensory, short-term and long-term memory stores DOT POINT 5: The brain and long-term implicit and explicit memories the roles of the hippocampus, amygdala, neocortex, basal ganglia and cerebellum in long-term implicit and explicit memories DOT POINT 6: the role of Episodic and semantic memory in remembering and imagining the role of episodic and semantic memory in retrieving autobiographical events and in constructing possible imagined futures, including evidence from brain imaging and post-mortem studies of brain lesions in people with Alzheimer’s disease and aphantasia as an example of individual differences in the experience of mental imagery DOT POINT 7: Mnemonics the use of mnemonics (acronyms, acrostics and the method of loci) by written cultures to increase the encoding, storage and retrieval of information as compared with the use of mnemonics such as sung narrative used by oral cultures, including Aboriginal peoples’ use of songlines CCCC CCCCCCC DOT POINT 1: Behaviourist approaches to Learning CCCCCCC cccccCCCCC DP1: behaviourist approaches to learning, as illustrated by classical conditioning as a three-phase process (before conditioning, during conditioning and after conditioning) that results in the involuntary association between a neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response,and operant conditioning as a three-phase process (antecedent, behaviour and consequence) involving reinforcement (positive and negative) and punishment (positive and negative) Unconditioned= something you don’t have to learn Conditioned= something you have to learn Neutral= no response stimulus Behavioursism - How do we study?Why are we really talking about it? - The science behind behaviour - Training people about certain behaviours What is learning? - Is relatively permanent change (in behaviour) that occurs as a result of experience - We don’t have to always be aware, we might not intend to learn something but we are - Can be intentional, putting in effort - Can be unintentional (something surprising or weird, watching others) - Active or passive (reflex involuntary) - Smiling,frowning, body language are unlearnt but instinctive - EXAMPLE: We don’t learn how to cry and etc Classical Conditioning - Simple form of learning occurring through repeated (one off with extreme feelings) association of two different stimuli to produce naturally occurring response - Natural instinctive response - Have to be involuntary responses Blinking Salivating Butterflies in stomach - Training - Survival instinct - Something new with voluntary response Pavlov's Dogs - Ivan Pavlov was a behaviourist - Watching, measuring, investigating dog saliva - Discovered he could condition his dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell - Associating the smell of food, sensation of eating by seeing the lab assistance as they were the ones who fed the dogs  - Naturally inactively drooling when they see food - Stimulus and response Classical conditioning elements Neutral stimulus= produces no naturally occurring response Unconditioned stimulus = produces a naturally occurring response Unconditioned response= naturally occurring response that occurs upon presentation of the UCS Conditioned stimulus= when repeatedly paired with UCS, it produces a CR Conditioned response= learned response that occurs upon presentation of CS During conditioning NS + UCS Neutral stimulus + unconditioned Stimulus bell= food= making association that bell means food After conditioning Bell not neutral anymore and is conditioned Drooling to bell is Conditioned response to conditioned stimulus AN unconditioned stimulus initiates a response Analysing classical conditioning scenarios Scenario 1: A child was playing on the kitchen floor while mum was washing the dishes. She drops a glass next to him causing her to scream at him to not touch the glass, she snatches hum into her arms. Her behaviour causes him to cry. Now he has a fear of broken glass NS: dropping glass on the floor UCS: mum screaming at the child USR: crying because of the screaming CS: the broken glass CR: Now the child having a fear of broken glass Scenario 4: Lachlan lives in the second floor apartment with his cat simba. When he goes to work, Simba is left in the apartment with water but no food. When he gets home from work, lachlan unlocks the door and puts the security code in which makes a beeping sound. He will feed simba. When he opens the door, lachlan finds simba waiting just inside the entrance ready to purr and rub against his leg. When they first moved in simba did not care about the beeping sound NS: security code beeping UC: giving simba the food USR: simba showing lachlan love by purring and rubbing against his leg CS: the security code beeping CR: happiness to the sound of the beep Operant conditioning Learning process which is the likelihood of a particular behaviour occurring is determined by the consequence of that behaviour - If the consequences are desirable, behaviour is likely to be repeated. - If the consequences are undesirable, behaviour is not likely to be repeated ABC What's the stimulus, what's the behaviour and what the response - The person operating is in control - More of cycle A- Antecedent - Initiates, stimulates, prompts behaviour - Means before B- Behaviour - Known as operant response - Voluntary, conscious aware - Individual acts upon their environment C- Consequences  - Shapes or guides future behaviour - outline the type of consequence (PR, PP, NP, NR) - Outline effectiveness ( order, timing, presentation) Example 1: you study hard for a test and receive a brilliant result A- hearing you have a test B- Studying (voluntary behaviour) C-v positive reinforcement, pleasure from the test Example 2: jealous of someone else at school, you post something online, yout friends don’t approve so they exclude you A- jealousy about another girl B- posting comments online C- getting excluded by her friends (losing time with her friends) Types of consequences Positive Reinforcement Giving of a pleasant stimulus that increase the likely of the behaviour occurring again Positive Punishment Give something bad to decrease the likelihood of the behaviour occurring Negative Reinforcement Taking away something bad increasing likelihood that the behaviour will occur Negative Punishment Taking something good decreasing likelihood that the behaviour will occur POSITIVE= GIVING NEGATIVE= TAKING REINFORCEMENT= INCREASE PUNISHMENT=DECREASE Effectiveness of consequences - In operant conditioning, the learner is considered to be an active participant in the process. They choose what to do next and their response is voluntary. Therefore we must consider what type of consequences may be most appropriate Order of presentation - reinforcement/punishment should always occur after the desired response (consistent) Timing - The punishment/reinforcement is most effective when given immediately after response has occurred Appropriateness - Taking into account the personal characteristics of the individual and the individual's situation when deciding whether the stimulus will act as a reinforcer/punishment for them personally - Association - Only applies to operent Comparing classical and operant conditioning Characteristics Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Role of the learner Passive participant Active participant Nature of response Involuntary response Voluntary response Timing of stimulus & response Stimulus presented before the Stimulus (consequence) presented response after response (behaviour) CCCCCCCC DOT POINT 2:Social-cognitive approaches to learningCCCCCCCCCC DP2:social-cognitive approaches to learning, as illustrated by observational learning as a process involving attention, retention, reproduction, motivation and reinforcement Social-cognitive approach to learning - Way of learning is not training but rather the social - Taking into account observing human beings - We have to remember and understand - Interactive and naturalistic type of learning - Watching people not intentionally (sometimes intentionally) Observational learning (modelling learnt behaviour) - Social and cognitive because it occurs when an individual see another person's action and the consequences of those actions guiding their own future behaviour - The model we choose is something appealing,likeable (rebellious , assertive ), share some similarities (age, gender, feelings, interest), admired (older, status) - Is an ongoing process (more long-term) - Deeper learning - Being in the presence of someone who teaches us Bandura experiment IV= Video/real-life (view of boys/girls) aggression on a bobo doll DV= number of aggressive acts on a toy + type (psychical, verbal aggression) Stages of Observational learning acrostic : AMY RARELY RINGS MARK RONSON Attention: notices or actively watching the model (don’t have to consciously tune into it, just happens) (effort or not) ↓ Retention: storing, forming a memory, something more complicated involves remembering more steps ↓ Reproduction: feeling (mental and psychical) and have the capacity or capability of performing the behaviour ↓ Motivation: the desire(keen) to do the behaviour (intrinsic/ within you) (extrinsic/outside you) ↓ Reinforcement: experiencing positive outcome after performing the behaviour, more likely to complete in future Spoke about 3 types of reinforcement Self ➔ Feeling of pride, being proud of yourself, encouragement, determination Direct ➔ Someone reinforces you, directly to the learner Vicarious ➔ We are reinforced when we watch others being reinforced CCCCCCCCCCC DOT POINT 3:Learner within a system (ATSI) CCCCCCCCCCCCC DP3:approaches to learning that situate the learner within a system, as illustrated by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ways of knowing where learning is viewed as being embedded in relationships where the learner is part of a multimodal system of knowledge patterned on Country ATSI people know and learn that it is holistic(system) and relational to Country, land, waterways and seas connected through ancestral ties. Connection to Country is physical and spiritual Ways of knowing and learning are embedded within different relationships, these include families, community, the land, water and skies which reflect everything on the land There an intimate relationship with all things between the people and Country Knowledge is attached to numerous location along the navigational tracts (called songlines) Knowledge is often multimodal and is shared by narratives, son, dance and ceremony (handing over knowledge) The modelling of behaviour is picked up generationally (observational learning). They model behaviours to the younger generation of ATSI, they then mimic/replicate the same behaviours Learner within a system - Oral culture - system= holistic - Place is a priority (Country) - Leaner has a relationship to each part of the system which makes it holistic - Individuals learning for themselves but also learning to be apart of a community System of Knowledge 8 Ways of Learning Framework - Connecting all aspect of ATSI culture Story sharing - Sharing the stories of ancestors - Constructing a sense of that story in your head, passing it on to others - Dynamic connection to country - Connection through narrative Learning maps - Map to country - Visuals - Diagrams - Scoping sequences Non-verbal - Music, art, body language, expressions, tracts/paths, astronomy - Dance  - Eyecontact Symbols and images - Artworks - Symbolic - Central to aborignal pedagogy Non-linear - Not a timeline, everything is happening. Not a straight line. Shared understanding - Indirect rather than direct - Minimising linear perspective Land links - Know they are apart of country (responsibility) - Adheres to the importance and significance of the aborignal connection to land Community links - They are apart of a community - Group-orientated practice deconstruct/reconstruct - Taking apart of story and reapplying it - Holistic approach - Master overall concepts before investigatory Ways of Knowing Knowing and learning are holistic and relational to country - the land, waterways and seas Family, community, the land, waters and the skies - they have a relationship with all those Knowledge is mentally linked to numerous locations along navigational tracts - Often shared and handed over by, narratives, songs, dance and ceremony Model behaviours - observational learning What is country - Knowledge comes from land - Connections to country is important as that's who they are - Plants,animals - Recognition that everything we are comes from the land Ccccccc CCC DOT POINT FOUR: Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory CCccccccccccccccccc DP4:the explanatory power of the Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory in the encoding, storage and retrieval of stored information in sensory, short-term and long-term memory stores WHAT IS MEMORY? - Memory is active (not passive, doesn’t happen to you) - Processing information acquired through learning - Active processing system that encodes,stores and recovered information when required (in) Encoding (where) storage (out) retrieval Econding - Converting of sensory information into a usable form so that it can be placed and stored in memory Storage - Retaining encoded information for future use Retrieval - Recovery of stored information for use when needed - We retrieve it - Uses short term memory Human memory - Working out tricks to effectively use it are not just helpful for retaining knowledge learnt at school - Requires a little bit of consolidation time consolidation= memory taking time to form (physically) (LTP) - Relatively permanent - Memories are personal, subjective and biassed - Memory can be vivid - It can fade Atkinson- Shiffrin multi-store model of memory Store Function Capacity Duration Sensory Memory Receives sensory information from Vast Momentary - about 0.2-4 environment Potentially seconds Enables perceptual continuity for the unlimited world around us Short-Term Receives information from sensory 7 +- 2 pieces Temporary - 18 - 20 seconds Memory memory and transfers information to of (possible up to 30)  and from LTM information Longer if renewed (e.g. Maintains information in conscious repetition) awareness for immediate use Long-Term Information storage for re-access and Vast Potentially permanent Memory use at a later time Potentially Some information may be unlimited lost or inaccessible over time Indefinite 1. Sensory information comes in 2. Is stored in a our sensory information (5 senses taste, sight, sound, smell, touch), is in perfect formed 3. Only what we choose to attend to changes, moving into short term memory (powerful memory store), place of memory manipulation, conscious powerhouse 4. Once manipulated we encode it storing it in your long term memory just ready for it to be retrieved when needed Sensory memory - Entry point for a memory that stores an exact replica of the world for a brief period of time - Store a perfect visual image - Sensory memory has a duration of just 0.2-4 seconds - Sensory information remains in sensory memory long enough to attend to it so it can be transferred to short term memory for processing - Is a temporary storage system - We are not consciously aware of the information in our sensory memory, it is only become consciously aware of when transferred to short term memory - Can be divided into iconic and echoic memory - We can store vast amounts of sensory information in sensory memory (described as having potentially unlimited storage capacity). - Important function: it stores sensory impressions long enough for each impression to slightly overlap the next. (helps ensure we perceive the world around us as continuous rather than as a series of disconnected visual images or disjointed sounds) Example 5.2.1 - If you went to a popular nightclub, your senses would be bombarded by thousands of different sights, sounds, smells and other stimuli. These would initially be stored in separate sensory stores called sensory registers. It is believed that there probably is a separate register for each of the senses Two examples of sensory memory Iconic memory Echoic memory - Seeing - hearing - Stores visual sensory information - Stores auditory information - Has duration of 0.2-0.4 seconds - Has duration of 3-4 seconds - Unlimited capacity - Has unlimited capacity ICONIC MEMORY - Describes visual sensory memory (brief sensory memory for incoming sensory information) - We retain visual images in their original sensory form for about a ⅓ of a second in iconic memory but last long enough to be recognized and processed into sensory information Example 5.2.1 a. the persistence of the image of the sparkler allows the child to ‘draw’ a series of circles b. without iconic memory, your world would disappear into darkness during each eye blink. ECHOIC MEMORY - used to describe auditory sensory information - It registers and retain all kinds of different sounds (speech, sirens, barking of dogs etc) - Called echoic due to the sound lingering like an echo - Functions like iconic memory but instead stores sound rather than visuals in the original sensory form - Main difference between the two is the time it takes for the information to fade - Echoic memory stores information for longer periods (3-4 seconds) while iconic is (0.2-0.4) - 3-4 seconds allows enough time for the information to be heard before the sound completely disappears - The relatively longer duration of echoic memory is important for understanding speech. You perceive speech by blending successive spoken sounds you hear. - When you hear a word pronounced, you hear individual sounds, one at a time. You can’t identify the word until you have heard all of the sounds that makeup the word. So Auditory information must be stored long enough for you to receive all the sounds involved. Example 5.2.1 - If someone says ‘compare’ you will think of judging something against something, but if someone says ‘compute’, you will think of something completely different. The first syllable you hear (com) has no meaning by itself, however the last syllable is heard, you can put them together and recognise and give meaning to the word. Short term memory - System with limited storage capacity where information is retained for a relatively short time - Where our memory is consciously manipulated - Last for 18-30 seconds - Has a capacity of 5-9 items (7 +-2) - Capacity can be increased by using a memory technique called chunking - Paying attention to information in your sensory memory allows for information to enter your short term memory EG. paying attention to this sentence has entered it into my short term memory  - STM holds all the information you are consciously aware of at any moment in time - Enables short term maintenance and manipulation of information in a conscious awareness. - STM is where all conscious learning, perceiving, feeling, thinking, reasoning takes place DURATION OF STM - Most information can be retained fairly well for the first few seconds. After 12 seconds recall starts to decline, by 18 seconds the information almost disappears entirely if not renewed - Method of renewal= maintenance rehearsal - It is possible to retain information in STM indefinitely through continued renewal involving your complete attention. Example: if you repeat a previously unknown phone number over and over to yourself, it can be retained in STM indefinitely. But if someone tells you their phone number and then you’re distracted by something else that requires your attention, you are likely to forget the number almost immediately. CAPACITY OF STM - STM has limited storage capacity compared to sensory memory and long term memory (LTM) - Can hold about 7 “bits of information” - Five and Nine units of information at any given moment. Some individuals have smaller or larger STM capacity. - STM capacity is obtain by researcher asking participants to memorise simple lists of data (memorising numbers, letters etc) Example 5.2.2 Sequence 1: W N V D C E I V D C S V Sequence 2: N S W V I C V C E D V D Second is easier to read due to chunking of the letters - Chunking grouping of separate bits of information into one or more larger units. The first sequence of letters was probably perceived as 12 separate items exceeding your STM capacity. The second letter sequence can be perceived as four ‘chunks” (NSW, VIC, VCE, DVD) which is within the capacity of the STM and therefore likely to be remembered. - Information stored in STM is lost primarily through decay (not being used) and displacement (being pushed out) by new information. DECAY ➔ occurs when information is not renewed (eg through repetition) and fades away with time ➔ EXAMPLE: you forget what you want to say in a conversation while you wait for another person to finish what they are saying. Your thoughts quickly fade from STM because listening to what the speaker is saying prevents you from repeating the information and therefore maintaining in STM the point you want to make FADING AND DISPLACEMENT ➔ can explain the experience of forgetting someone’s name straight after being introduced to them ➔ If you engage the person in a conversation, the lack of opportunity for ‘rehearsal’ of their name can result in fading from STM ➔ New additional items of information introduced during the conversation may result in the capacity of STM being exceeded and displacement of the person’s name. When STM is “full” new items can only enter through displacement (pushing old item out) STM functions as working memory ‘working memory’ (STM) - Emphasises the active processing and use of information that occurs in short term memory  - Our ‘working memory’ enables us to maintain information in conscious awareness whilst we actively ‘work on’ and manipulate it as we undertake our everyday tasks. - provides a temporary storage facility and mental ‘workspace’ for information currently being used in some cognitive activity - Depending on task information may be retrieved from LTM for use in ‘working memory’ - Understanding and calculating information only remains in ‘working memory’ while we consciously process, examine or manipulate it. - Once the required task has been achieved, the information stored there is no longer required and is either transferred to LTM or discarded. Example - We combine information from sensory memory and LTM to perform all kinds of mental activities, such as when texting on a mobile phone. Long term memory - Stores potentially unlimited amount of information for a very long time after original learning - Relatively permanent memory store where information can be stored and from which it can be later retrieved for future use - Relatively permanent duration - Different types of LTM are associated with different kinds of information and memories - Two main types of LTM are explicit and implicit memory (each having two subgroups) - Differ in terms as one is with conscious awareness and the other is without conscious awareness EXPLICIT= CONSCIOUS AWARENESS IMPLICIT= WITHOUT CONSCIOUS AWARENESS EXPLICIT MEMORY - Can be consciously retrieved and stated - Involves general knowledge about personal experiences that an individual retrieves in response to a certain need. - It is the conscious attempt to retrieve previously stored information  - Eg. Remember someone’s name, an address, a password, the colours of the australian flag etc. - Also called declarative memories Because we can consciously retrieve the information and explicitly (openly) express it - Two subdivision of Explicit memory is Episodic and Semantic memory Episodic Memory Semantic Memory - Long term memory of personally experienced events, - Long term memory of facts and knowledge about the associated with time and place. (what, when, where). world EXAMPLE: Your memory of your first day at school, where you Knowledge learned in school went for a holiday at christmas etc. Everyday facts and general knowledge Meaning of words - Always includes the self as the recipient of some Rules action Concepts EXAMPLE: falling off your bike (what) on your birthday Areas of expertise (when) and hurting your knee on your driveway(where) - Semantic memories are not “tagged” with details of time and place - Certain memories of personal memories are also EXAMPLE: you can access a fact that Harry Styles was in One referred to as ‘autobiographical memories’. Direction but you have no idea where and when you first ‘autobiographical memories’= a person’s memory for events learned this information that occurred in their own life that can consist of info stored - Episodic and Semantic store different kinds of in episodic memory information but interact when forming new EXAMPLE: autobiographical memory of our first day at school memories can include episodic information, such as meeting the - The memory may be an autobiographical event that teacher,(might also contain semantic information such as consists of episodic and semantic information, but knowledge of the teacher's name was Ms. Smith). An episodic with each type of information stored separately memory would not include the teachers name EXAMPLE: a close friend texted you last night to tell you that their dog was hit by a car and was seriously injured, this would be general knowledge about your friend, and therefore part of the semantic and episodic memory. You may eventually forget the episodic details of the memory such as where and when you received the info. If you subsequently recall the particular occasion when and where you had heard the bad news, you would have an instance of episodic memory IMPLICIT MEMORY - Long term memory that does not require conscious/intentional retrieval You are not aware that you are remembering - ‘Memory without awareness’ EXAMPLE: motor skills: brushing teeth, kicking a footy, riding skateboard - Includes classical conditioned responses (fear and strong dislike of tastes) - Term used as the existence of a specific memory can be ‘implied’ by responses that can be observed EXAMPLE: your memory for knowing how to tie your shoelaces or ride a bicycle can be judged by watching you do it rather than asking you to state how you do it.  -Are called non-declarative memories Because people often find it difficult to describe in words what is being remembered but the memory can be expressed through behaviour EXAMPLE: if this patient can recall unfamiliar words presented when unconscious during surgery and is unaware of when the words were learned then she would be demonstrating implicit memory. - Two subdivisions are Procedural memory and Classically conditioned memory Procedural memory Classically conditioned memory - Long term memory for the skills involved in particular - Conditioned response to conditioned stimulus acquired tasks through classical conditioning are considered implicit - ‘Memory of how to do something’ memories EXAMPLE: Motor skills such as knowing how to drive a car, using - Particularly Involving fear and anxiety. chopsticks, play a G chord on a guitar and how to rollerblade (even EXAMPLE: immediately experience fear or anxiety at the sight of if you haven’t done it in a long time) a spider or when you think about going to the dentist because of - Based on practice and demonstrated through past experiences with pain. performance (behaviour) and include what are called motor or muscle memories. Taste aversion - Typically require little or no intentional or conscious - acquired involuntarily without conscious awareness attempt to retrieve. through classical conditioning EXAMPLE: not riding a bicycle for a long time, the skills required to EXAMPLE: Because of a past association with feeling ill after do so will be reactivated and brought into conscious awareness eating yoghurt, you now feel nauseous when smelling, seeing or with no mental effort thinking about yoghurt. This happens without a deliberate effort - What is remembered is automatically translated into or conscious awareness. Means it is implicit actions - Difficult to put into words CCCCCDOT POINT 5: The brain and long-term implicit and explicit memoriesCCCCC DP5: the roles of the hippocampus, amygdala, neocortex, basal ganglia and cerebellum in long-term implicit and explicit memories - There are certain brain area and structures with distinctive roles in the encoding, storage, retrieval of different types of explicit and implicit memories - Different areas may become active as we encode,store,retrieve different information - All the roles are anatomically interconnected and interact with each other in various memory processes HIPPOCAMPUS - Encodes explicitly (declarative) memories Location: above each ear, deep within brains medial temporal lobe area under the cerebral cortex - Part of the brain's limbic system, involved in emotion - Has a crucial role when formulating and encoding new semantic and episodic memories - Helps to ensure that they are neurologically stable (long-lasting) explicit long term memories. - Lasting memories are not created immediately at the time of the new experience. (period of time is required to ensure experience becomes long-lasting) Consolidation: neurobiological process of making a newly formed memory stable and enduring, following a learning experience - Time is required after learning takes place to enable the new information to consolidate (set) as a durable long-term memory. TWO STAGES OF CONSOLIDATION - initial rapid storage (take days) - followed by a slower, process for long term storage (weeks, months or years) (permanent) Consolidation is required for this to achieve: Vital role in our memories  Once memories are consolidated, encoded memories are not fixed or unchangeable. Whenever a memory is retrieved, it is open to further consolidation and has to be ‘re-establish’ through the process of reconsolidation. If the info of the original memory is changed, we rehash a memory than the revised version is ‘reconsolidated’ Neural degeneration in the hippocampus is a leading contributor in the development of Alzheimer’s disease - Links are made to establish between different interrelated bits of memory to enable their retrieval as a single memory. - It plays a role in integrating new incoming information with existing info to form a network for memories. - When we are emotionally aroused, we form semantic and episodic memories about the situations in which these occurs EXAMPLE: When you have an emotionally traumatic experience, your amygdala and hippocampus encode different aspects of the emotionally arousing event for storage in your LTM. When you retrieve the memory from the cortex at some time in the future, the activity of the hippocampus during memory formation will enable you to remember such aspects as where the event happened, when it happened and whom you were with at the time when you retrieve the memory. These details are explicit memories. - Meanwhile as your amygdala is activated during retrieval you will also remove the emotional arousal content - Sympathetic nervous system reactions that have been linked to the memory may be initiated (muscles may tighten, heart may beat faster)- (component is implicit memory) - Hippocampus is important for spatial memory Explicit memory for physical location of objects in space. Enables navigation from place to place allowing to remember locations AMYGDALA - The explicit amygdala retrieves (declarative) memories (specifically those that are emotionally driven) - PROCESS AND REGULATES EMOTIONAL REACTIONS (particularly fear and anger, that can be experienced instantly and motivate types of behaviour) EXAMPLE: it enable you to detect possible danger when approached by a snarling dog and recognise fear in other people from their facial expressions before they even say a word Location: above and interconnected with hippocampus in the medial temporal lobe. In each hemisphere - Is connected with many other brain areas and structures allowing it to participate in a range of neurological activities - Adrenalin also aids in the formation and strength of emotional memories  - Involved in the formation and consolidation of a wide range of other emotional memories. A considerable amount of research on its role has been on classically conditioned fear response involving implicit memory - Formation and consolidation of wide range of other emotional memories, a memory for events that evoke an emotional reaction People with damage to their amygdala are typically unable to acquire a conditioned fear response. They’re likely to form conscious long term explicit memories involving the details of the experience but not the implicit memory that would enable them to produce or express the fear response - Classically conditioned emotional response is involved long-term implicit memory because they occur involuntarily in the presence of relevant environmental stimulus no intentional conscious recall, ‘react’ immediately/consciously evaluate whether there is any danger afterwards - more likely to remember events that produce a strong emotional reaction - The level of emotional arousal at the time of encoding influences the strength of LTM formed of that event It may increase the amount of noradrenaline in the amygdala during times of heightened emotional arousal. When released, adrenaline induces the release of noradrenaline in the amygdala. The presence of noradrenaline is believed to stimulate the amygdala to attach more emotional significance to the experience and signal the hippocampus to encode and ensure long-term storage of the relevant emotional details during the memory consolidation process It does not permanently store emotional memories The amygdala also contributes to the formation and storage of long-term explicit memories. This is apparent in specific types of episodic memory known as a flashbulb memory Flashbulb memory - vivid, highly detailed and long-lasting memory of an event that is very surprising, consequential or emotionally arousing. - Personal circumstances at the time of the event EXAMPLE: hearing about an unexpected death of an important person in their life or of a shocking incident that dominates the news. NEOCORTEX Meaning: ‘new cortex’ - Sheet of wrinkly looking neural tissue which forms outer surface of brain - Largest and most evolved part of cerebral cortex - 90% of cerebral cortex is neocortex - Is anatomically distinguished by its six layers of neurons - Covers two cerebral hemispheres (have four lobes) - Virtually connected to all parts of the brain allowing it to take part in almost everything we consciously think, feel and do MAKES US WHO WE ARE AS HUMANS DISTINGUISHES US FROM ANIMALS - Important role in range of memory processes. A CRUCIAL role is interaction with the hippocampus in the formation ,consolidation, storage and retrieval of long- term explicit memories - Time passed after learning and consolidation occurs allows for LTM stored in the neocortex to become independent of the hippocampus, amygdala etc. - Neocortex has a vital role in the retrieval process. - Long-term explicit semantic and episodic memories are widely distributed throughout the neocortex EXAMPLE: the episodic memory of a rock concert you may attend will have different components such as the name of the band, visual images of the various band members, the band’s sounds. The continued use of the network for integrated the separate memories into one when recalling the concert, the groups of neurons involves repeatedly fire together, strengthening their connections as they become tied together as a single memory - It is likely that the name of the band will be stored in a cortical area involved with language (frontal lobe), images in the visual cortex (occipital lobe) and sounds in the auditory cortex (temporal lobe) - The separate parts are gathered together and reconstructed as a single, integrated memory for retrieval into our conscious awareness BASAL GANGLIA - Has a role in long-term implicit memories involving motor skills. Been associated with the impaired voluntary movement of people diagnosed with parkinson's disease Location: lying deep within the brain with extensive connections to neocortex and other brain areas EXAMPLE: tremors and repetitive movements of the hands, fingers, difficulty starting and sustaining voluntary movement such as standing up walking etc - responsible for encoding and storage of motor and implicit memory - associated with habit forming, linking, stimulus response learning - supported by dopamine in the formation of these memories - Long-term implicit memories involving motor skills Habituation: - process of growing accustomed to a situation or stimulus, it involves a decrease in responsiveness following repeated exposure to a stimulus (both animals and humans have found that basal ganglia is involved in habituation and the associated memories.)  - Sometimes described as ‘non-associative’ learning because it doesn't involve the association of two stimuli to produce behaviour change, furthermore it usually occurs involuntarily without any intention to learn. EXAMPLE: people living near main roads in the Melbourne suburbs become habituated to the noise of passing traffic but can be woken early in the morning to the sound of birds when they’re on holiday. Similarly when you first put on a shoe, you ‘feel’ it on your foot, but very shortly it is as if the shoe is no longer there and you ignore the sensation of pressure on your foot. However, you do not develop an ‘insensitivity’ to the sensation. You stop noticing the ‘feel’ of the shoe and habituate to it. (this happens without conscious awareness & therefore also involves memories that we can recall without conscious awareness.) CEREBELLUM - responsible for encoding and storing implicit (procedural) memories. - As a brain structure, it also controls balance, coordination, movement and motor skills - There is increased evidence for its role in ‘working memory’ which is controlled by the prefrontal cortex. Functions to: coordinate fine muscle movements regulates posture and balance contributes to various perceptual and cognitive processes - Involvements in activities that require timing and are made with speed, ease and fluency. EXAMPLES: touch typing, playing the piano, picking up a coffee cup, so that your arm and hand make one continuous movement Research states that it is directly involved in encoding and temporary storage of implicit procedural memories - it does not form and store implicit memories of simple reflexes acquired through classical conditioning. Role mostly related to assisting with visual sensori-motor coordination and the ability to organise and execute complex and effective behaviours (the implicit procedural component of navigation) rather than formation of an internal map of the environment (the explicit semantic component of navigation). CCCCCCCCC DOT POINT SIX: Episodic and Semantic Memory CCCCCCCCCCCCC DP6:the role of episodic and semantic memory in retrieving autobiographical events and in constructing possible imagined futures, including evidence from brain imaging and post-mortem studies of brain lesions in people with Alzheimer’s disease and aphantasia as an example of individual differences in the experience of mental imagery Studying the Brain - Studying the brain has come along way and further developments continue all the time - It allows for researchers to see structural and functional changes such as displayed in MRI, FMRI and PET technologies - Shows clear brain activity - Is safe and is non invasive - 3D and precise (has great detail) Impacts - Radioactive glucose injection - Not greatly detail structurally - Cost + access - Confined space +noise What can we see in the brain - Tumours, shrinkage - Genetic abnormalities 😀 PET scan 🙁 = available, cheaper, clear brain activity = radioactive, glucose, injection 😀 fMRI scan 🙁 = safe and great detail (3D, precise) = cost and access, confined space and noise 😀 MRI scan 🙁 = can differentiate between nutrients, provide clear information for diagnosis = noise, cost, claustrophobia, too small inside MRI FMRI PET Alzheimer's Disease - Is a neurodegenerative disease that results from loss of neurons in the hippocampus - This causes memory loss and personality change - It is characterised by loss of episodic memory in early stages, but as it progresses the impact on semantic memories is seen as well - Episodic first and once progressed Semantic memories - technologies. - Most common branch under the umbrella term ‘dementia’ - Hippocampus is affected first and the amygdala last - Abnormal proteins build up within the neurons, thereby disrupting their function - As neurons die, brain areas begin to fail, shrink and waste away - Tau proteins cause tangles inside cells in neurons - Low acetylcholine levels - Amyloid plaques causes brain lesions - Cortical shrinkage - Episodic memories in the early stages are forgotten - As it progresses, semantic memory is affected as well - The STM is disrupted What causes Alzheimer’s? - Amyloid plaque (protein deposits) - Neurofilibilty tangles - Cortical shrinkage - Imbalance in acetylcholine (neurotransmitter) How is Alzheimer's diagnosed? - The amyloid plaques can cause brain lesions which then can be identified through brain imaging - Alzheimers is the best confirmed through post mortem examination Symptoms Treatment Memory loss, especially declarative memories There is no cure for Alzheimer’s – yet. Personality change Symptoms continue to worsen over time.  Confusion and disorientation There are, however, medications that can slow Repetition the progression of the disease. Aphantasia - rare phenomenon where individuals are unable to see visual imagery - they cannot produce a visual image in their mind - Our ability to do this is initiated by the visual cortex, not our eyes. That is why brain imaging technologies are useful in its diagnosis. - Typically people are born with aphantasia, but it can also be acquired after brain injury. - People with aphantasia have a reduced ability to recall episodic memories. They also have difficulty in imagining future events. - Less activity in the visual cortex CCCCCCCCCCCCCCC DOT POINT SEVEN: MnemonicsCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC DP7:the use of mnemonics (acronyms, acrostics and the method of loci) by written cultures to increase the encoding, storage and retrieval of information as compared with the use of mnemonics such as sung narrative used by oral cultures, including Aboriginal peoples’ use of songlines Written Culture Acronyms - Mnemonic device in which the first letter of each item to be recalled is placed together to create a word. - Has to have vowels - Must be able to be pronounceable - Less information - short - More limited, especially if it has to be in a certain order Acrostics - Mnemonic device in which the first letter of each item to be recalled becomes the first letter of a new word, and these new words are put together into a phrase, rhyme or poem. - Elaborative - song, story - Takes effort - Can always make an acrostic - The order and vowels don’t matter Both - Use the first letter of the word needed Method of loci - Known as a memory palace. - Start with a series of well known locations, then attach each word or concept to be remembered to each location (loci). - You then take a physical or mental walk to recall each of these items. REVISION QUESTIONS: How do the behaviourist and ATSI models different in their approach to learning? Behaviourst learning talks about voluntary or involuntary responses but the ATSI model doesn’t refer to responses of any kind to stimuli in learning Behavirousim uses consequences in operant conditioning but there is no mention of punishment or reinforcement in learning Behaviorism doesn’t have any mention about learning on/in any place but ATSI model refers to learning on country Behaviorism follows a order structure and timing matters but the ATSI model of learning is often nonlinear CCCCdvvvvvvvvvdddddd CccCCResearch Methods and EthicsC bfffffvvvvvvvvvvvvffff CCCCCCCC Research methods: Aim - Describing how the DV is measured - Include IV and DV - Begin with “to” Hypothesis - Prediction - Clearly state the population - Write a clear statement predicting - How change in the IV (present different levels) - Will affect the DV (increase/decrease) - Operationalised hypothesis including details of the experiment Independent variable - The researcher deliberately manipulates a variable - We can see a different behaviours between groups based on the suspected cause - What's changing Dependent variable - Researcher collecting evidence - Measures the effects of the IV - Comes after IV - What's being measured Controlled variables - Said to have effect on the DV in an experiment so it needs to be controlled to remove its potential effect Operationalizing variables Independent ➔ Defining how the IV will be measured - IV in more detail Dependent ➔ Defining how the DV will be measured - DV in more detail Research Designs: Experimental Non experimental Experimental research - Testing and measuring variables - Has a testable prediction - Controlled variables - 3 ways to run one  Between Designs - Different groups being compared - Each participant experiences either one IV or the other. The comparison is made between the groups. - Quicker (however more EVs) Within Designs - Everyone does all the experiences within a study, results are compared to your-self - each person experiences the IVs *within* themselves. - Every participant does both conditions. Our water gun prac was within subjects because each learner got a spray to a target word (IV) and also the control measure of a word with no spray. Mixed Designs - there is a pre-test involved, to compare data, or another DV/data type is added, or more participants are added. Adding is the key to a mixed design. (Like our Operant prac) - IV- give, control DV- something I measure Case study - Small investigation (1-3 people) particular people that have an unusual disease etc. Limitations on samples. Very specific and small research - Small non-experimental study Classification and identification (NOT RELEVANT) - Speaking about different ways we can organise information Controlled experiment (within subjects, between subjects, mixed design) - Testing difference between two variables - Control of variables (predictions + hypothesis) - Comparison of two (or more) groups - Artificial? Correlational study - Correlated = connected - Scatter plot - Things that have a positive or negative correlation - Higher number means more higher affect - Not an experiment - “People who do this tend to always do this” - Naturalistic (EV- impacts) Fieldwork - Going out into the real world (shopping centres, schools, city,jails,hospitals) - Go out to talk to people to collect data literature review - Collection of studies - Reviewing and reading all of the literature (science that is out there) - Summarising a decent number of relevant studies Sampling Is a group of participants in a research study Random ➔ Ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample being used in the study Stratified ➔ Relates to the different levels of the population inducing (financial status, age groups, ethnicity etc) ➔ Population is represented proportionally ➔ Eg. 51% female in population Convenience ➔ Whoever is available at the time Data - Data can’t be both qualitative and quantitative - Data can’t be subjective and objective - Data can be either 2 from each dot point combined ie. quantitative and subjective Qualitative- Descriptive Subjective data based on opinion Quantitative- Measurement (numbers) Mean= calculated average Median= the middle score found between the lowest to highest score Mode= most common occurring score Subjective - Subjects from the Inside Objective - Subjects from the outside Sources of Error Sampling - Biassed in sampling - Small samples (10 participants) Ethics - Unethical study is not scientific, can not be replicate EV - Any other factor other than an IV that affects the DV  - Are not controlled but is limited - Too controlled can be artificial Types of EV (used to be more descriptive) PONIES P- Placebo - Fake treatment - Used for controlled group O- order effect - Order you do a study in - Counterbalance (reverse order of half the group) - boredom/practice when doing a study twice - Watching a horror movie then watching a comedy movie will make you want to stop watching movies - Using (within participants) N- non-standard instructions - Giving groups different instructions may change results - Different instructions is biassed I- individual differences - You are being compared to yourself rather than someone else with different characteristics - Great solution of (within participants design) E- experimenter - Experimenter can have impacts of the study - Impacts data S- situational - Context and environment must be similar as possible Ethics: What is ethics? - Refers to standards that guide individuals to desired conduct. - Help us make moral judgement about what is right and what is wrong (acceptable/unacceptable) Ethical concepts Beneficence Commitment to maximising benefit and minimising harm when taking a particular course of action ➔ Example: teacher must consider all good outcomes while minimising harm to participants and community. Potential benefits must justify any risk or harm to participant Integrity Commitment to searching for knowledge/understanding. The honest reporting of all sources of information/results (whether favourable or unfavourable) in a way to contribute to public understanding ➔ Example: is carried out with a commitment to following recognised ethical principles for conducting research including accurate responsible reportings of findings Justice Moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims. Having no unfair b