Psychology PowerPoint ExamClass! PDF

General Psychology and Life Skills PowerPoint ExamClass! Chapter One: Essence of Psychology 1.1. Definition of Psychology and Related Concepts Brainstorming Questions What comes to your mind when you hear about the word psychology? Have you ever heard about...

General Psychology and Life Skills PowerPoint ExamClass! Chapter One: Essence of Psychology 1.1. Definition of Psychology and Related Concepts Brainstorming Questions What comes to your mind when you hear about the word psychology? Have you ever heard about, read or listened to anything related to psychology? What was its content about? Did you appreciate it? Why? What do you expect from the course in psychology?  … The word "psychology" is derived from two Greek words 'psyche' (Ψ) and ‗logos‟. Psyche refers to mind, soul or sprit while logos means study, knowledge or discourse. Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and the underlying mental process – Science: psychology uses scientific methods (scientific procedures and empirical data to study behavior and mental processes. – Behavior: overt or observable actions, such as talking, facial expressions, movement, etc and covert or unobservable behavior such as thinking , feelings and memory which are hidden, and generally considered as a mental process.  What makes psychology different from other behavioral Sciences? Unlike some behavioral sciences like sociology and Anthropology, psychology deals about individual’s behaviours than the behaviors of a group. Unlike other sciences that deals about one or some dimensions of human behaviour, psychology deals about all dimensions of human behaviour.  1.2. Goals of Psychology Why do you think is psychology important? What do you think a psychologist is doing when studying behavior and mental processes? As a science, psychology has four goals; Description: describing individuals behaviour Explanation: understanding and telling the cause Prediction: determining what will happen in the future and Control: modifying or changing the behavior from undesirable to a desirable one  1.3. Historical Background and Major Perspectives in Psychology Dear student, can you imagine how long has psychology been around and where did it begin? ▪ Psychology is a relatively new field in the realm of sciences. ▪ It began as a science of its own in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany, with the establishment of a psychology laboratory in the University of Leipzig by Wilhelm Wundt (father of modern psychology). ▪ Wundt developed the technique of objective introspection to scientifically examine mental experiences. ▪ Previously, the study of human subjective experiences were under the field of philosophy alone.  Schools of thoughts in psychology What do you think is a school of thought? In psychology, a school of thought is a system of thinking about human behaviour. Once psychology begun to use the scientific method, it then went through successive developments in which different schools of thought emerged at different times. These schools of thought can be categorized as old and modern as described below.  1.3.1. The five early schools of psychology 1. Structuralism View - psychology is a study of structure of mind. Founder - Edward Titchener based on Wundt‘s ideas Goal - to analyze the units or elements of mental process such as; sensations, images, & feelings. Method - introspection (looking inward into our consciousness) 2. Functionalism Views - psychology is a study of function of the mind Founder - William James. Goal - examine how the mind allows people to function in the real world; – how people work, play, and adapt Methods - methods other than introspection including questionnaires, mental tests & objective descriptions.. 3. Gestalt psychology View - psychology is a study of the whole mind than its parts (images, sensations, and feelings). Founders - Max Wertheimer and his colleagues. Goal - studying the whole pattern of sensory activity and the relationships and organizations within their pattern. All the three schools of though try to examine the conscious human mind; which is an internal, no-visible, and hidden experience of human beings.. 4. Behaviorism View - psychology is the study of observable and measurable behaviors: not about hidden mental processes. Founder - John B. Watson is the founder of behaviorism. Other proponents include E. Thorndike and F. Skinner. Goal - to observe the effect of the environment on behavior. Method - observation and experiment ❖All the four schools of thought discussed so far were focusing on human mind and behavior as conscious experiences. 5. Psychoanalysis View - psychology should study about the components of the unconscious part of the mind: not about the tips of mental iceberg. Founder - Sigmund Freud. He realized that some physical illnesses of hysteria patients has emotional non-physical causes. He called these “ conversion reaction” or illnesses due to conversion of emotional problems. He also underscored that that conflicts and emotional traumas that had occurred in early childhood can be hidden or unconscious and then will remain to affect later behavior. Goal – to uncover the hidden wishes, passions, guilty secrets, unspeakable yearnings, and conflict between desire and duty. Method - clinical case studies (hypnosis, free association, & dream analysis) We are not aware of our unconscious urges & thoughts; they make themselves known in dreams, slip of the tongue, accidents & even jokes.  1.3.2. Modern schools of psychology Perspectives are the different assumptions or ways of explaining behaviors. Take the following case to see different explanations by those different perspectives. Case: On the playground, a 6 year old Sam pushes little Sara off her bicycle and rides away on it. 1. Psychodynamic perspective It has its origins in Freud's theory of psychoanalysis, but many other psychodynamic theories exist. It emphasizes on; – the unconscious dynamics within the individual such as inner forces, conflicts or instinctual energy. – The role of childhood experiences in shaping adult personality – The role of intrapersonal conflict in human behavior Psychodynamic view tries to dig below the surface of a person's behavior to get into unconscious motives; psychodynamists think of themselves as archaeologists of the mind.  2. Behavioral Perspective It emphasizes on the role learning experiences play in shaping the behavior of an organism. It is concerned with how the environment affects the person‘s actions. Behaviorists focus on environmental conditions (e.g. rewards, & punishments) that maintain or discourage specific behaviors. The behavioral perspective is sometimes called the "black box" approach in psychology because it treats the mind as less useful in understanding human behavior. This means, behaviorists are only interested in the effects of the environment (input) on behavior (output) but not in the process inside the box.  3. Humanistic Perspective ▪ According to this perspective, human behavior is not determined either by unconscious dynamics or the environment. Rather it emphasizes the uniqueness of human beings and focuses on human values and subjective experiences. ▪ This perspective places greater importance on the individual‘s free will. ▪ The goal of humanistic psychology was helping people to express themselves creatively and achieve their full potential or self-actualization (developing human potential to its fullest).  4. Cognitive Perspective It emphasizes what goes on in people's heads; how people reason, remember, understand language, solve problems, explain experiences and form beliefs. This perspective is concerned about the mental processes. The most important contribution of this perspective has been to show how people's thoughts and explanations affect their actions, feelings, and choices. Techniques used to explore behavior from a cognitive perspective include electrical recording of brain activity, electrical stimulation and radioactive tracing of metabolic activity in the nervous system.  5. Biological Perspective It focuses on how the body affects behavior, feelings, and thoughts. It holds that the brain and the various brain chemicals affect psychological processes such as learning, performance, perceptions, the experience of emotions, etc. This perspective underscores that biology and behavior interact in a complex way; biology affecting behavior and behavior in turn affecting biology. It also emphasizes the idea that we are physical beings who evolved over a long time and that genetic heritage can predispose us to behaving in a certain way. In a manner that our eyebrows evolved to protect our eyes, we may have evolved certain kinds of behavior patterns to protect our bodies and ensure the survival of our species.  6. Socio-cultural Perspective- It focuses on the social and cultural factors that affects human behavior. As a fish cannot leave without water, human behavior cannot be understood without sociocultural context (the social and cultural environment) that people "Swim" in every day. For instance, social psychologists examine how group membership affects attitudes and behaviors, why people (like spouse, lovers, friends, bosses, parents, & strangers) affect us Cultural psychologists also examine how cultural rules and values affect people's development, behavior, and feelings. This perspective holds that humans are both the products and the producers of culture, and our behavior always occurs in some cultural contexts. 1.4 Branches /Sub fields/ of Psychology Where do psychologists employed to work after graduation? Psychology has very diverse fields/branches/sub fields which psychologists can pursue. Some of which are; A. Developmental psychology – It studies the physical, cognitive and psychological changes across the life span. B. Personality Psychology – it study about individual differences which focuses on the relatively enduring traits & characteristics of individuals. C. Social Psychology –deals with people‘s social interactions, relationships, social perception, and attitudes. D. Cross-cultural Psychology - examines the role of culture in understanding behavior, thought, and emotion. E. Industrial psychology – applies psychological principles in industries & organizations to increase the productivity. F. Forensic psychology - applies psychological principles to improve the legal system (police, testimony, etc. G. Educational Psychology - concerned with the application of psychological principles & theories to improve education process H. Health Psychology - applies psychological principles to the prevention and treatment of physical illness and diseases. I. Clinical Psychology - is a field that applies psychological principles and psychotherapeutic techniques to the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders. J. Counseling Psychology - has the same concern as clinical psychology but helps individuals with less severe or milder (simpler) emotional & personal problems.  1.5. Research Methods in Psychology Definition of terms Research - is a scientific method of acquiring knowledge and solving problems. Scientific method - a process of testing ideas through systematic observations, experimentations, and statistical analysis. Hypotheses - is a tentative proposition about the relationship between two or more variables or phenomena. Theory - is an integrated set of principles about observed facts that is intended to describe and explain some aspects of experience.  Steps in scientific research 1. Defining the Problem - noticing something attention catching in the surrounding for which one would like to have an explanation. E.g., Students’ dropout 2. Formulating the Hypothesis - after having an observation on surroundings (perceiving the problem), you might form an educated guess about the explanation for your observations, putting it into the form of a statement that can be tested. 3. Testing the Hypothesis - at this step, the researcher employs appropriate research methods and collects ample data (information) to accept or reject the proposed statement. 4. Drawing Conclusions - the step in which researchers attempt to make generalization or draw implication from tested relations 5. Reporting Results - at this point, the researcher write up exactly what s/he did, why s/he did, and what s/he found. So that, others can learn from what s/he already accomplished. The findings allows others to predict and modify behavior.  Major types of research methods A.Descriptive research - in this type of research, the researcher simply records what s/he has observed. It includes; i. Naturalistic observation: it is a method in which subjects are observed in their natural environment to get a real (not artificial) picture of how behavior occurs. Limitations of naturalistic observation are observer effect and observer bias. ii. Case study: is a technique in which an individual is studied in great detail. It provides tremendous amount of data about a single case or individual. But the result can‘t be applied to others iii. Survey: is used to collect data from a very large group of people. It enables to address hundreds of people with the same questions at the same time, but it needs a careful selection of a representative sample of the actual population.  B. Correlational research ▪ Is a research method that measures the relationship between two or more variables. ▪ A variable is anything that can change or vary - scores on a test, the temperature in a room, and so on. For example, a researcher might be curious to know whether or not smoking is correlated to life expectancy. ▪ Though correlation tells researchers if there is a relationship between variables, how strong the relationship is, and in what direction the relationship goes, it doesn‘t prove causation (which means it doesn‘t show the cause and effect relationship). ▪ For example, if there is a relationship between smoking and lung cancer, this doesn‘t mean that smoking causes lung cancer. ▪ Relationships may be positive, negative, or zero.  C. Experimental Research It is a research method that allows researchers to study the cause and effect relationship between variables. In experimental research, one or more factors are believed to influence the behavior being studied, while all other factors are held constant. Experiments involve at least one independent variable and one dependent variable. The independent variable (IV) is the manipulated, influential, experimental factor. The dependent variable (DV) is the factor that is measured in an experiment. It can change as the independent variable is manipulated. For example, a researcher may need to know whether or not class size (IV) has an effect on students achievement (DV). Experiments also involve randomly assigned experimental/ treatment groups and control/baseline groups. An experimental group is a group whose experience is manipulated. Although experimental research is useful to discover causes of behaviors, such research must be done cautiously.  Chapter Two: Sensation and Perception Meanings of Sensation and perception Sensory thresholds and sensory adaption Perception Selectivity of perception: Attention Form perception Depth perception Perceptual Constancies Perceptual Illusion  2.1 Meanings of Sensation and Perception What do these statements suggest to you? “I heard but I didn’t listen” “I touched but I didn’t grasp” ▪ Sensation is the process through which sense organs detects stimulus from the environment and the receptor cells in the sense organs recode the physical energy or stimulations in to a neural message a phenomenon called transduction and sends the nerve impulses to the brain. Perception is the process that organizes sensations into meaningful patterns. It is the process whereby the brain interprets sensations, giving them order and meaning. Thus, hearing sounds and seeing colors is largely a sensory process, but forming a melody and detecting patterns and shapes is largely a perceptual process.  2.2 The Sensory Laws Sensory threshold and sensory adaptation are the two general laws of sensation, that explain how sensation works. How much intense must a stimulus be for you to detect it? Sensory threshold is the minimum point of intensity a sound can be detected. There are two laws of sensory threshold: The law of absolute threshold and the law of difference threshold. Absolute threshold (Limen) is the minimum level of stimulation that can be detected. E.g., a cup of coffee require a certain amount of sugar before you could detect a sweet taste. In addition to the intensity of the stimulus, absolute threshold is also affected by physical and psychological factors of the individual such as response-bias. Thus, psychologists define absolute threshold as the minimum level of stimulation that can be detected 50 % of  Difference threshold Difference threshold or just noticeable difference (JND) is the minimum amount of change in the intensity/amount of a stimulus needed for us to recognize that a change has occurred. E.g., a cup of coffee require a certain additional amount of sugar in a cup of coffee to detect an increase in its sweetness. Like in absolute threshold, the difference threshold for a particular sensory experience varies from person to person and from occasion to occasion. Thus, psychologists formally define the difference threshold as the minimum change in stimulation that can be detected 50 percent of the time by a given person.  Sensory Adaptation Your senses are constantly bombarded by stimulation, but why do you notice only certain stimuli? Sensory adaptation is a tendency of our sensory receptors to have decreasing responsiveness to unchanging stimulus. Sensory adaptation lets you detect potentially important change in your environment while ignoring unchanging aspects of it. For example, people living in “Kera”/Addis Ababa stopped noticing the bad smell of that environment. ▪ We may not adapt extremely intense sensations ▪ Adapting harmful stimuli might be harmful or even fatal  2.3.Perception Perception is a meaning making process The major characteristics of the perceptual process includes; ▪ Selectivity of perception (attention), ▪ Form perception, ▪ Depth perception, ▪ Perceptual constancy, and ▪ Perceptual illusion. 1. Selectivity of perception (Attention): refers to the perceptual process that selects certain inputs for inclusion in your conscious experience, or awareness, at any given time, ignoring others.  … The selectivity of perception implies, that our field of experience is divided into what is known as - Focus & - Margin. Events or stimuli that you perceive clearly are the focus of your experience and other items or stimuli that you perceive dimly or vaguely are in the margin of your attention. Attention shifts constantly. What is in the focus of your attention one moment may be in margin; and what is in the margin may become in your focus. What factors do you think determine your attention?  Paying attention is in general a function of two factors: factors external to the perceiver and factors internal to the perceiver. External factors refer to factors that are generally found in the objects or stimuli to be perceived. Some of the external characteristics of objects that determine whether you are going to attend them or not are size and intensity, repetition, novelty (or newness), and movement. In general, stimuli in the environment that, are bigger and brighter, more frequently occurring, or newer or moving are likely to get your attention.  Paying attention is not determined only by the characteristics of objects. Even when a stimulus is bigger, brighter, new frequent, or moving, you may not give it attention if you are not psychologically ready to attend to it. Hence, attention giving also depends on your psychological states as an observer. Psychologists have identified two important psychological factors: ▪ Set or expectancy and ▪ Motives or needs. 2. Form perception Visual sensations, provide the raw materials that are to be organized into meaningful patterns, shapes, forms, and concepts or ideas or form perception. The meaningful shapes or patterns or ideas that are made perhaps out of meaningless and discrete or pieces and bites of sensations refer to form perception. To perceive forms (meaningful shapes or patterns), you need to distinguish a figure (an object) from its ground (or its surrounding).  What helps us to separate the figure from the ground in our visual perception? I. Contours in Form Perception You are able to separate forms from the general ground only because you can perceive contours. Contours are formed whenever a marked difference occurs in the brightness or color of the background. II. Organization in Form Perception When several objects are present in the visual field, we tend to perceive them as organized into patterns or groupings. As Gestalt psychologist said - the whole is more than the sum of its parts. Organization in perception partially explains our perception of complex patterns as unitary forms, or objects. How do we organize sensory data in form Perception?  Some laws of perceptual organization? I. Law of Proximity: The laws of proximity says that items which are close together in space or time tend to be perceived as belonging together or forming an organized group. II. Law of similarity According to the law of similarity, similar items tend to be organized together. E.g., three dots in a ring/ circle is seen as a triangle. However, grouping according to similarity, does not always occur. Similarity is competing with the organizing principle of symmetry, or good figure.  III. The law of good figure: It is a tendency to organize things to make a balanced or symmetrical figure that includes all the parts. E.g., six dots in a circle may be seen as a hexagon, star or another symmetrical figure. IV. Law of Continuity It is the tendency to perceive a line that starts in one way as continuing in the same way. E.g., a line that starts out as a curve is seen as continuing on smoothly curved course. V. Law of closure The law of closure refers to perceptual processes that organize the perceived world as complete by filling in gaps in stimulation.  VI. Law of Common Fate It is the tendency to group objects as part of the same group, that move together, or seem to move together, and in the same direction. E.g., we often see flocks of birds or herds of cattle, or boys or girls playing together as one group.  3. Depth Perception While form perception is our understanding of the world from two- dimensions (height & width), depth perception is our judgment of the world from the third dimension (distance or depth of objects) Depth perception depends on the use binocular cues (require two eyes) & monocular cues (require one eye). There are two kinds of binocular cues: retinal disparity and convergence. The two kinds of binocular cues require the interaction of both eyes. Retinal disparity is, the degree of difference between the image of an object that are focused on the two retinas. The closer the object, the greater is the retinal disparity. Convergence is the degree to which the eyes turn inward to focus on an object. The closer the objects are the greater the convergence of the eyes.  Monocular cues People who have lost sight in one eye may still have good depth perception with monocular cues, mentioned below. A.Accommodation - change in the shape of the lens that lets you focus the image of an object on the retina. The closer the object the greater the accommodation of the lens but, prolonged accommodation can alter your depth perception. B.Motion parallax - the tendency to perceive ourselves as passing objects faster when objects are closer to us than when they are farther away. C. Pictorial cues – are cues which artists use them to create depth in their drawings and paintings. Pictorial cues include Interposition, Relative size, Linear perspective, Elevation, Shading patterns, Aerial perspective, and Texture gradient. FIGURE 4.41 The apparent motion of objects viewed during travel depends on their distance from the observer. Apparent motion can also be influenced by an observer’s point of fixation. At middle distances, objects closer than the point of fixation appear to move backward; those beyond the point of fixation appear to move forward. Objects at great distances, such as the sun or moon, always appear to move forward.  Pictorial cues … A. Interposition: object that overlaps another object appears closer. B. Relative size: if two people have the same height and one casts a smaller image on your retina, you will perceive that person as farther away. C. Linear perspective: parallel objects seem to get closer as they further away. D. Elevation - Objects that are higher in your visual field seem to be farther away. If you paint a picture, you create depth by placing more distant objects higher on the Canvas. E. Shading patterns: areas that are in shadow tend to recede, while areas that are in light tend to stand out. F. Aerial perspective (clarity of objects): Closer objects seem clearer than more distant ones. G. Texture gradient: the nearer an object, the more details we can make out & the farther an object, the fewer details we can make out. FIGURE4.38 (a) Linear perspective. (b) Relative size. (c) Light and shadow. (d) Overlap. (e) Texture gradients. Drawings in the top row show fairly “pure” examples of each of the pictorial depth cues. In the bottom row, the pictorial depth cues are used to assemble a more realistic scene. 4. Perceptual Constancies The image of a given object focused on your retina may vary in size, shape, and brightness. Yet we continue to perceive the object as stable in size, shape, and brightness because of perceptual constancy. This adaptive process of perceiving the world as stable object includes; ▪ Size constancy - makes you interpret a change in its retinal size as a change in its distance rather than in its size. ▪ Shape constancy - assures that an object of known shape will appear to maintain its normal shape regardless of the angle from which you view it. ▪ Brightness constancy - we perceive the object as having a constant brightness though the amount of light reflected from a given object can vary.  Size constancy We perceive all three doors as rectangles and all three hands as equal in size.. Shape constancy. (a) When a door is open, its image actually forms a trapezoid. Shape constancy is indicated by the fact that it is still perceived as a rectangle. (b)With great effort you may be able to see this design as a collection of flat shapes. However, if you maintain shape constancy, the distorted squares strongly suggest the surface of a sphere.  5.Perceptual Illusion Illusions are misperceptions or false perceptions of an object, which include; Visual or Optical illusions are physical stimuli that consistently produce errors in perception. E.g., Moon illusion and Muller-Lyer illusion on length of lines. Visual or auditory hallucinations (sensory experiences and perceptions that do not corresponding to the reality). Delusions are unfounded beliefs that are strongly held despite a lack of evidence for them. The three common types are; ▪ A delusion of persecution is a belief that dangerous enemies are persecuting you. ▪ A delusion of grandeur is a belief that you are unusually important, perhaps a special messenger from God or a person of central importance to the future of the world. ▪ A delusion of reference is a tendency to interpret all sorts of messages as if they were meant for yourself. Extra Sensory Perception (ESP) or Paranormal Ability ESP is perception that occurs independently of the known sensory processes. Usually included in this category of phenomena are; Telepathy or thought transference between persons - The ability to read the minds of others & know what they’re thinking. Clairvoyance - The ability to see events without being physically present. Supernormal awareness of objects or events not necessarily known to others; and Precognition - The ability to see into the future. Mediumship - The ability to communicate with spiritual world and talk to the deceased. Clairgustance - The paranormal ability to taste a substance without putting it in mouth.  CHAPTER THREE LEARNING AND THEORIES OF LEARNING  3.1. Definition, Characteristics and Principles of Learning 3.1.1. Definitions of learning Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior occurring as a result of experience or practice. The above definition emphasizes four attributes of learning: -Learning is a change in behavior. -This change in behavior is relatively permanent -This change in behavior is because of experience, or practice - The learning is not directly observable but manifests in the activities of the individual  3.1.2. Characteristics of learning Learning is continuous modification of behavior throughout life. Learning is pervasive, it reaches into all aspects of human life. Learning involves the whole person, socially, emotionally & intellectually. Learning is often a change in the organization of experiences. Learning is responsive to incentives. Learning is an active process. Learning is purposeful. Learning depends on maturation, motivation and practice. Learning is multifaceted.  3.1.3. Principles of learning Individuals learn best; When they are physically, mentally, & emotionally ready. When they have meaningful practice and exercise, and When it is accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling Things learned first create a strong unforgettable impression. Things most recently learned are best remembered. The principle of intensity implies that a student will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute. Some abilities and skills that may help individuals to learn. Things freely learned are best learned - higher intellectual and moral advancement occur when learning is through freedom.  3.2. Factors Influencing Learning Motivation Maturation Health condition of the learner Psychological wellbeing of the learner Good learning conditions Background experiences Length of the working period Massed and distributed learning Do learning materials, teaching styles, teaching methods, and medium of instruction affects learning like the factors listed above? Why? 3.3. Theories of Learning and their Applications 1. Behavioral Theory of Learning Behavioral theory of learning believes that learning occurs as a result of stimulus-response associations. Behavioral theories emphasize on observable behaviors, seek laws to govern all organisms, and provide explanations which focus on consequences. There are two major behavioral theories of learning. They are known as classical and operant conditioning.  1 A. Pavlov’s Classical conditioning theory It is sometimes called learning through association. Classical conditioning focuses on the learning of making involuntary emotional or physiological responses to stimuli that normally elicit no response. E.g., fear, increased heartbeat, salivation or sweating at the sight of a hyena. Through the process of classical conditioning, humans and animals can be trained to act involuntarily to a stimulus that previously had no effect - or a very different effect - on them. Classical conditioning involves conditioned reflexes. E.g., the production of saliva (conditioned reflex) in a response to food. In short, classical conditioning (sometimes called substitution learning ) is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response.  Basics of Classical Condition To demonstrate classical conditioning, we must first identify stimuli and responses. ▪ Neutral stimulus: A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest. ▪ Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally brings a particular response without having been learned. ▪ Unconditioned response (UCR): A response that is natural and needs no training (e.g., salivation at the smell of food). ▪ Conditioned stimulus (CS): A once neutral stimulus that has been paired with an UCS to bring about a response formerly caused only by the UCS. ▪ Conditioned response (CR): A response to the CS.  Principles of Classical Condition A. Stimulus generalization is a process in which stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus begin to produce the same responses. For example, a dog conditioned to salivate to a dinner bell (CS) might also salivate to a door bell, a telephone bell. B. Stimulus discrimination is the ability to differentiate similar stimuli and responding only to a specific stimulus. E.g., the dog salivates only in response to the dinner bell instead of the doorbell or the telephone bell.  … C. Extinction If a CS is repeatedly presented without presenting the UCS (meat), the CR will diminish and eventually stop occurring. This process is called extinction. But extinction only inhibits the CR, it does not eliminate it. D. Spontaneous recovery is the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning. For example, if the dog respond to the dinner bell after experience of extinction by salivating.  1 B. Operant/Instrumental conditioning Operant conditioning also called Instrumental conditioning is learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its consequences. In operant conditioning, the organism's response operates or produces effects on the environment. These effects, in turn, influence, whether the response will occur again. Unlike in classical conditioning, operant conditioning applies to voluntary responses, in which an organism performs deliberately to produce a desirable outcome.  … According to Skinner, a response (operant) can lead to three types of consequences: (a) Neutral consequence (b) Reinforcement or (c) Punishment. (a) A neutral Consequence that does not alter the response. (b) A reinforcement strengthens the response. A reinforcer is any event that increases the re-occurance of a behaviour. There are two basic types of reinforcers. Primary reinforcers: Food, water, light, stroking of the skin, and a comfortable air temperature are naturally reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs. Primary reinforcers have the ability to strengthen a behavior without prior learning. Secondary reinforcers: They reinforce behavior because of their prior association with primary reinforcing stimuli. Money, praise, applause, good grades, awards, and gold stars are common secondary reinforcers..  Positive and Negative reinforcement Both primary and secondary reinforcers can be positive or negative. Positive reinforcement is the process whereby presentation of a stimulus makes behavior more likely to occur again. Negative reinforcement is the process whereby termination of an aversive stimulus makes behavior more likely to occur. The basic principle of negative reinforcement is that eliminating something aversive can itself be a reinforcer or a reward. For example, if someone nags you all the time to study, but stops nagging when you comply, your studying is likely to increase- because you will then avoid the nagging. Negative reinforcement involves escape & avoidance learning. In Escape learning animals learn to make a response that terminates/stops a noxious, painful or unpleasant stimulus. In Avoidance Learning, which refers to learning to avoid a painful, noxious stimulus prior to exposure. Schedules of reinforcement When a response is first acquired, learning is usually most rapid if the response is reinforced each time it occurs. This procedure is called continuous reinforcement. However, once a response has become reliable, it will be more resistant to extinction if it is rewarded on an intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement, which involves reinforcing only some responses, not all of them.  There are four types of partial/intermittent schedules. 1.Fixed-ratio schedules: Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses. It produce high rate of responding. Employers use fixed ratio schedules to increase productivity. 2. Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement occurs after some varying number of responses. It produces extremely high steady rates of responding. The responses are more resistant to extinction than when a fixed ratio schedule is used. 3. Fixed Interval Schedule: A fixed interval schedule of reinforcement occurs only if a fixed amount of time has passed since the previous reinforcer. 4. Variable Interval Schedule: A variable interval schedule of reinforcement occurs only if variable amount of time has passed since the previous reinforcer... c) Punishment - is a stimulus that weakens the response or makes it less likely to recur. Punisher can be any aversive (unpleasant) stimuli that weaken responses or make them unlikely to recur. Like reinforcers, punishers can also be primary or secondary. Pain and extreme heat or cold are inherently punishing and are therefore known as primary punishers. Criticism, demerits, catcalls, scolding, fines, and bad grades are common secondary punishers. Positive and negative punishment The positive-negative distinction can also be applied to punishment. Something unpleasant may occur following some behavior (positive punishment), or something pleasant may be removed (negative punishment). The Pros and Cons of Punishment Immediacy, consistency and intensity matter are important for effectiveness of punishment. Immediacy – When punishment follows immediately after the behavior to be punished. Consistency- when punishment is inconsistent the behavior being punished is intermittently reinforced and therefore becomes resistant to extinction. Intensity- In general terms severe punishments are more effective than mild ones. However, there are studies that indicate that even less intense punishments are effective provided that they are applied immediately and consistently.  When punishment fails? People often administer punishment inappropriately or mindlessly. The recipient of punishment often responds with anxiety, fear or rage. The effectiveness of punishment is often temporary, depending heavily on the presence of the punishing person or circumstances. Most behavior is hard to punish immediately. Punishment conveys little information. An action intended to punish may instead be reinforcing because it brings attention.  Shaping Shaping is an operant conditioning procedure in which successive approximations of a desired response are reinforced. In shaping you start by reinforcing a tendency in the right direction. Then you gradually require responses that are more and more similar to the final desired response. The responses that you reinforce on the way to the final one are called successive approximations.  … Skinner’s process of Successive approximation and Shaping behavior by means of reinforcement and punishment.  Application of the behavioral learning theories Conditioning study behavior Conditioning and classroom behavior Managing Problem Behavior Dealing with anxieties through conditioning Conditioning group behavior Conditioning and Cognitive Processes Shaping Complex Behavior 2. Social Learning Theory (Observational learning) According to Bandura, human learning consists of observational learning, which is learning by watching the behavior of another person, or model. It is also called a social cognitive learning. Bandura identifies three forms of reinforcement that can encourage observational learning. First, the observer may reproduce the behaviors of the model and receive direct reinforcement. Second, the reinforcement need not be direct - it may be vicarious reinforcement as well. The observer may see others reinforced for a particular behavior and increase his production. The final form of reinforcement is self-reinforcement, or controlling your reinforcers. In this sort of reinforcement the learner does not get external rewards but the students value and enjoy their growing competence. Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory of Learning B  … Social cognitive theorists believe that in human beings, observational learning cannot be fully understood without taking into account the thought processes of the learner. Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual can successfully model the behavior of someone else: 1. Attention: the person must first pay attention to the model. 2. Retention: remembering the behavior observed. 3. Motor reproduction: replicating the action. 4. Motivation: learners need a motivating factor to demonstrate what they have learned.  Implications of Social Learning Theory 1. Students often learn simply by observing other people. 2. Describing the consequences of behavior involve discussing with learners about the rewards and consequences of actions 3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping. Instead of using shaping, it can provide a faster, more efficient means for teaching new behavior through the four essential conditions; attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation. 4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do not model inappropriate behaviors. 5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. 6. Students must develop self-efficacy to accomplish school tasks. 7.Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their academic accomplishments. 8. Self-regulation techniques provide an effective method for improving student behavior.  3. Cognitive Learning Theory Cognition refers to all the mental activities related with thinking, and knowing, activities which include perception and memory. In both CC&OC, the emphasis was on observable responses. However, because the knowledge that is inside people’s head is not observable, it was not seriously considered. The emphasis on cognitive approach to learning is on the acquisition of information through interaction; not via R-S or S-R association and the ways of dealing with information.. Both classical and operant conditionings have traditionally been explained by the principle of contiguity i.e. the close association of events in time and space. Contiguity has been used to explain the association of a CS and UCS in classical conditioning and the association of a behavior and its consequences in operant conditioning. In cognitive learning, learning occurs in the mind independent of any clearly defined association/consequence. It may take two forms: 1. Latent learning 2. Insight learning (gestalt learning or perceptual learning) For half a century, most American learning theories held that learning could be explained by specifying the behavioral ―ABCs – Antecedents (events preceding behavior), Behaviors, and Consequences  … Latent Learning Latent learning is defined as learning that occurs in the absence of any obvious reinforcement or noticeable behavioral changes. Learning is said to be “latent,” or hidden, because it is not exhibited unless a reinforcement/condition of some kind is introduced to reveal it. In a classic experiment, Tolman and Honzic (1930) placed three rats in mazes and observed their behavior each day for more than two weeks. ‘Rat-A’ always found food at the end of the maze. ‘Rat-B’ never found food. ‘Rat-C’ found no food for ten days but then received food on the eleventh. Tolman’s Experiment  … ‘Rat-A’ quickly learned to head straight to the end of the maze without going blind alleys, whereas ‘Rat-B’ did not learn to go to the end. But, Rat-C was different. For ten days it appeared to follow no particular route. Then, on the eleventh day it quickly learned to run to the end of the maze. By the next day, Rat-C did the same, like Rat-A which had been rewarded from the beginning. Rat-C had demonstrated latent learning, learning that is not immediately expressed. A great deal of human learning also remains latent until circumstances allow or require it to be expressed.  … Insight Learning It is a cognitive process whereby we reorganize our perception of a problem. It doesn’t depend on conditioning of particular behaviors for its occurrence. Sometimes, for example, people even wake up from sleep with a solution to a problem that they had not been able to solve during the day. In a typical insight situation where a problem is posed, a period follows during which no apparent progress is made, and then the solution comes suddenly. What has been learned in insight learning can also be applied easily to other similar situations. Human beings who solve a problem insightfully usually experience a good feeling called an 'aha' experience. Kohler’s insight Experiment on Chimps  CHAPTER FOUR MEMORY AND FORGETTING 5.1 Memory 5.1.1 Meaning and Processes of Memory Memory is the retention of information learned earlier over time. It is the way in which we record the past for later use in the present. Memory is a blanket label for a large number of processes that form the bridges between our past and our present.  Processes of Memory a) Encoding: refers to the form (i.e. the code) in which an item of information is to be recorded/placed in memory. In encoding we transform a sensory input into a form or a memory code that can be further processed. b) Storage: It is the location in memory system in which material is saved. Storage is the persistence of information in memory. c) Retrieval: is the point at which one tries to remember a particular information (brought into awareness and used) from among all the others we have stored.  5.1.2 Stages/Structure of Memory Memory structure refers how information is represented in memory and how long it lasts and how it is organized. Many cognitive psychologists relate the mind to a digital computer that takes items of information in processes or in stages, and then produces an output. Models of memory based on this idea are Information processing models/theories. Like computer, we also store vast amounts of information in our memory storehouse. From this storehouse, we can retrieve some information onto a limited capacity of working memory (consciousness).  Three Stages of Memory Three memory stores that differ in function, capacity and duration. According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), memory has three structures: 1) Sensory Memory/Sensory Register: It is the entry way to memory, where information stay for a brief time (until we select it for attention). Sensory memory hold virtually all the information reaching our senses for a brief time. For instance, Visual images (Iconic memory) remain in the visual system for a maximum of one second. Auditory images (Echoic memory) remain in the auditory system for a slightly longer time, by most estimates up to two second or so. The information stored in sensory memory is a fairly accurate representation of the environmental information but unprocessed. Most information briefly held in the sensory memory simply decays from the register. Those information that has got attention and recognition pass on short-term memory for further processing.. Short term memory is distinguished by four characteristics: It is active - information remains in STM only so long as the person is consciously processing, examining, or manipulating it. People use STM as a “workspace” to process new information and to call up relevant information from LTM. Rapid accessibility - Information in STM is readily available for use. The difference between STM and LTM is the difference between searching for information in an open computer file versus file stored on the hard drive. Preserves the temporal sequence of information-STM usually helps us to maintain the information in sequential manner for a temporary period. It keeps information fresh until it goes to further analysis and stored in LTM in meaningful way. Limited capacity-the number of items that short-term memory can handle at any one time is small - about “7 plus or minus 2” pieces of information at a time (Miller,1956).... According to most models of memory, we overcome this problem, by grouping small groups of information into larger units or chunks. Chunking is the grouping or “packing” of information into higher order units that can be remembered as single units. Chunking expands working memory by making large amounts of information more manageable. A chunk may be a word, a phrase, a sentence, or even a visual image, and it depends on previous experience. STM memory holds information (sounds, visual images, words, and sentences and so on) received from SM for up to about 30 seconds by most estimates. It is possible to prolong STM indefinitely by rehearsal- the conscious repetition of information. Material in STM is easily displaced unless we do something to keep it there.. 2) Short-term Memory: is part of our memory that holds the contents of our attention. Unlike sensory memories, short-term memories are not brief replicas of the environmental message. Instead, they consist of the by-products or end results of perceptual analysis. STM is important in a variety of tasks such as thinking, reading, speaking, and problem solving. There are various terms used to refer to this stage of memory, including working memory, immediate memory, active memory, and primary memory. Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information silently to prolong its presence in STM Elaborative Rehearsal: Links new information with existing  3. Long Term Memory It is a relatively permanent storage of meaningful information. The capacity of LTM seems to have no practical limits. The LTM is assumed to be composed of different sub systems: Declarative/explicit memory-the conscious recollection of information such as specific facts or events that can be verbally communicated. Declarative memory is subdivided into semantic and episodic memories. – Semantic memory-memories of meaning of words, concepts and our knowledge of the world, independent of any particular context. – Episodic memory-memories of events and situations. Non-declarative/implicit memory-refers to memory without awareness; memory that affects behavior but cannot consciously be recalled. One of the most important kinds of implicit memory is procedural memory (habitual responses).. Serial Position Effect If you are shown a list of items and are then asked immediately to recall them, your retention of any particular item will depend on its position in the list. That is, recall will be best for items at the beginning of the list (the primacy effect) and at the end of the list (the recency effect). When retention of all the items is plotted, the result will be a U-shaped curve. According to Serial Position Effect or the three-box model, the first few items on a list are remembered well because short-term memory was relatively “empty” when they entered. The last few items are remembered for a different reason: At the time of recall, they are still sitting in STM. The items in the middle of the list, however, are not so well retained because by the time they get into LTM, it is already crowded. As a result many of these items drop out of STM before they can be stored in LTM.  Semantic Networks A complex web of semantic associations that link items in memory such that retrieving one item triggers the retrieval of others as well.  5.1.3 Factors Affecting Memory Memory is a process which includes learning, retention and remembering. These processes are important for good memory. Eleven Factors that Influence Memory Process are as follows: a. Ability to retain/past experience b. Good health c. Age of the learner d. Maturity e. Will to remember f. Intelligence g. Interest h. Over learning i. Speed of learning j. Meaningfulness of the material k. Sleep or rest  5.2 Forgetting 5.2.1 Meaning and Concepts of Forgetting In our daily living, we encounter so much information. If we attempt to encode, store & recall all the info, we are in trouble. Hence, we are selective in storing and forgetting information. Sometimes we are motivated to forgot something and recall what we want to remember. Psychologists call this phenomenon as motivated forgetting. Psychologists generally use the term forgetting to refer to the apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in the long-term memory. According to Ebbinghaus (1885), the most rapid forgetting occurs in the first hours, and particularly in the first hour f learning. After nine hours, the rate of forgetting slows. Furthermore, relearning of previously mastered material is almost always faster than starting from a scratch.  The Forgetting Curve Hermann Ebbinghaus first began to study forgetting using nonsense syllables Nonsense syllables are three-letter combinations that look like words but are meaningless (ROH, KUF)  5.2.2. Theories of Forgetting Psychologists identified the following five mechanisms of forgetting: The Decay Theory: The decay theory holds that memory traces or engram fade with time if they are not - accessed now and then. In decay, the trace simply fades away with nothing left behind, because of the passage of time. Interference theory: Interference theory holds that forgetting occurs because similar items of information interfere with one another in either storage or retrieval. It may be proactive or retroactive. In Proactive Interference, information learned earlier interferes with recall of newer material. In Retroactive Interference, new information interferes with the ability to remember old information New Memory for Old/ Displacement Theory: This theory holds that new information entering to memory can wipe out old information. This works for STM, where the capacity for information is limited to seven plus or minus chunks. It cannot work for LTM having virtually unlimited capacity.. Motivated Forgetting: According to Freud, it is blocking of those memories from consciousness that are two threatening or painful to live with, and he called this self-protective process of Repression. Today many psychologists prefer to use a more general term, motivated forgetting. Cue Dependent Forgetting: refers forgetting due to lack of retrieval cues in which we may feel as if we have lost the call number for an entry in the mind‘s library. That may also explain why remembering is often easier when you are in the same physical environment as you were when an event occurred.  5.3. Improving Memory Some simple mnemonics/memory aids are useful, but complicated ones are often more bothersome than benefitting. A better approach is to follow some general guidelines. Pay Attention: We often fail to remember because we never encoded the information in the first place. Encode information in more than one way/Add meaning: The more elaborated (meaningful) the material, the more likely it is to link up with information already in long-term memory. Take your time: Minimize interference by using study breaks for rest. Sleep is the ultimate way to reduce interference. Over learn/Practice : Studying information even after you think you already know it.  … Monitor your learning (SQ3R): By testing yourself frequently, rehearsing thoroughly, and reviewing periodically, you will have a better idea of how you are doing Increase the Depth of Processing Hierarchical Organization Verbal Mnemonics Method of Loci Peg-Word Method Minimize Interference Utilize Context Effects  CHAPTER FIVE MOTIVATION AND EMOTIONS  5.1. Motivation 5.1.1. Definition and types of motivation Motivation is a force/factor that initiate, direct and persist peoples’ behaviour towards purpose. For example, hunger cause the person to get up, go into the kitchen, and search for something to eat. The hunger causes the action (getting up), directs it (going to the kitchen), and sustain the search (finding or preparing something to eat).  Types of motivation It is possible to categorize motivation into two: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. – Intrinsic motivation is a type of motivation in which a person acts because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner. – Extrinsic motivation is a type of motivation in which individuals act because the action leads to an outcome that is external to a person. Motives are also frequently divided into: (a) physiological, primary, or organic motives, such as hunger, thirst, and need for sleep; and (b) personal, social, or secondary motives, such as affiliation, competition, & individual interests & goals. 5.1.2. Approaches to motivation (theories of motivation) It explains about the sources of our motivation. Some of these theories are instinct, drive-reduction, arousal, incentive, cognitive, and humanistic. a) Instinct approaches to motivation Focused on the biologically determined and innate patterns of both humans and animals behavior. It realize that some human behavior is controlled by hereditary factors. For example, animals are governed by their instincts to do things such as reproducing, migrating, nest building, mating and protecting their territory, early researchers proposed that human beings may also be governed by similar instincts. The early theorists and psychologists listed thousands of instincts in humans including curiosity, flight (running away), pugnacity (aggressiveness), and acquisition (gathering possessions).  b) Drive-reduction approaches to motivation A need is a requirement of some material (such as food or water) that is essential for the survival of the organism. When an organism has a need, it leads to a psychological tension as well as physical arousal to fulfill the need and reduce the tension. This tension is called drive. Drive-reduction theory proposes just this connection between internal psychological states and outward behavior. In this theory, there are two kinds of drives. – Primary drives are those that involve survival needs of the body such as hunger and thirst – Secondary (acquired) drives are those that are learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money, social approval. This theory also includes the concept of homeostasis, or the tendency of the body to maintain a steady-state.  c) Arousal approaches: beyond drive reduction Arousal approaches seek to explain behavior in which the goal is to maintain or increase excitement. According to arousal approaches, each person tries to maintain a certain level of stimulation and activity. As with the drive-reduction model, this approach suggests that if our stimulation and activity levels become too high, we try to reduce them. But, in contrast to the drive-reduction perspective, the arousal approach also suggests that if levels of stimulation and activity are too low, we will try to increase them by seeking stimulation.  d) Incentive approaches: motivation’s pull Incentive approaches suggest that motivation stems from the desire to attain external rewards, known as incentives. In this view, external stimuli such as grades, money, affection, food, or sex - account for a person‘s motivation. Many psychologists believe that the internal drives “push” proposed by drive-reduction theory work in a cycle with the external incentives of incentive “pull” theory. Hence, at the same time that we seek to satisfy our underlying hunger needs (the push of drive-reduction theory), we are drawn to food (the pull of incentive theory). Rather than contradicting each other, then, drives and incentives may work together in motivating behavior.  e) Cognitive Approaches: the thoughts behind motivation Cognitive approaches to motivation suggest that motivation is a result of people’s thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and goals. For instance, the degree to which people are motivated to study for a test is based on their expectation of how well studying will pay off in terms of a good grade. Cognitive theories of motivation draw a key difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation causes us to participate in an activity for our enjoyment rather than for any actual or concrete reward that it will bring us. In contrast, extrinsic motivation causes us to do something for money, a grade, or some other actual, concrete reward. ❖ Compare students studying for grade and for knowledge  f) Humanistic approaches to motivation Maslow rejected the dominant theories of psychoanalysis and behaviorism in favor humanistic view. Maslow suggested that human behavior is influenced by a hierarchy, or ranking, of five classes of needs, or motives. He said that needs at the lowest level of the hierarchy must be satisfied before people can be motivated by the higher levels. Maslow’s five Hierarchies of needs for motives from the bottom to the top are as follows: 1. Physiological needs - are biological requirements for human survival, e.g. air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep. 2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear.  … 3. Love and belongingness needs - the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness. Examples include friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance in a group, receiving and giving affection and love. 4. Esteem needs - the need to be respected as a useful, honorable individual; which Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige). 5. Self-actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self- fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. A desire ―to become everything one is capable of becoming‖. The following figure shows how our motivation progresses up the pyramid from broadest(most fundamental) to higher-order ones. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs  5.1.3. Conflict of motives and frustration Based on the sources of motivation and the importance of the decision, we usually face difficulty in choosing among motives. When the decision is more important, the number and strength of motivational pushes and pulls are often greater, creating far more internal conflict and indecision. There are four basic types of motivational conflicts. Approach-approach conflicts - exist when we must choose only one of the two desirable activities. Example, going to a movie or a concert. Avoidance-avoidance conflicts - arise when we must select one of two undesirable alternatives. Someone forced either to sell the family home or to declare bankruptcy.  … Approach-avoidance conflicts - happen when a particular event or activity has both attractive and unattractive features, e.g., a freshman student wants to start dating but she, at the same time, is worried that this may consume her study time. Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts - exist when two or more alternatives each have both positive & negative features. E.g., you must choose between two jobs. One offers a high salary with a well-known company but requires long working hours and relocation to a miserable climate. The other boasts advancement opportunities, fringe benefits, and a better climate, but it doesn‘t pay as much and involves an unpredictable work schedule.  5.2. Emotions 5.2.1. Definition of emotion Emotion is a negative or positive feeling generally in reaction to stimuli that are accompanied by physiological arousal and related behavior Emotion is a complex reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioral, and physiological elements, by which an individual attempts to deal with a personally significant matter or event. It is the feeling aspect of our consciousness.  Emotion Components of emotion Physical component – physiological arousal (internal body state accompanying the emotion) Cognitive component – the way we interpret a stimulus or a situation Behavioral component – outward expression of the emotion (facial expressions gesture, body posture, tone of voice). The physiology of emotion - when a person experiences an emotion, there is physical arousal created by the sympathetic nervous system. The heart rate increases, breathing becomes more rapid, the pupils of the eye dilate, and the moth may become dry. Although facial expressions do differ between various emotional responses, emotions are difficult to distinguish from one another based on outward bodily reactions alone.  The behavior of emotion - tells us how people behave in the grip of an emotion. There are facial expressions, body movements, and actions that indicate to others how a person feels. Frowns, smiles, and sad expressions combine with hand gestures, the turning of one‘s body, and spoken words to produce an understanding of emotion. People fight, run, kiss, and yell, along with countless other actions stemming from the emotions they feel. Facial expressions can vary across different cultures, although some aspects of facial expression seem to be universal.  Subjective experience or labeling emotion is the third component of emotion and it involves interpreting the subjective feeling by giving it a label: anger, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness, shame, interest, surprise and so on. This component is also called “cognitive component” because the labeling process is a matter of retrieving memories of previous similar experiences, perceiving the context of the emotion, and coming up with a solution- a label. The label a person applies to a subjective feeling is at least in part a learned response influenced by that person‘s language and culture. Such labels may differ in people of different cultural backgrounds.  Basic Emotions The revised model of basic emotions includes: – Happiness – Surprise – Sadness – Fear – Disgust – Anger Anger Disgust Fear Happiness Sadness Surprise  Theories of emotion I. James-Lang Theory of Emotion In this theory, a stimulus of some sort (for example, the large snarling dog) produces a physiological reaction. This reaction, which is the arousal of the “fight-or-flight” sympathetic nervous system (wanting to run), produces bodily sensations such as increased heart rate, dry mouth, and rapid breathing. James and Lang believed that physical arousal led to the labeling of the emotion (fear). Simply put, “I am afraid because I am aroused,” “I am embarrassed because my face is red,” and “I am in love because of my heart rate increases when I look at her or him.”. II. Cannon-Bard theory of emotion Physiologists Cannon and (1927) and Bard (1934) theorized that the emotion and the physiological arousal occur more or less at the same time. For example, the fear and the bodily reactions are, therefore, experienced at the same time-not one after the other. “I am afraid and running and aroused!”. III. Schechter-Singer and Cognitive Arousal Theory The early theories talked about the emotion and the physical reaction, but what about the mental interpretation of those components? In their cognitive arousal theory, Schachter-Singer (1962) proposed that two things have to happen before emotion occurs: the physical arousal and labeling of the arousal. These two things happen at the same time, resulting in the labeling of the emotion. For example, if a person comes across a snarling dog while taking a walk, the physical arousal (heart racing, eyes opening wide) is accompanied by the thought (cognition) that this must be fear. Then and only then will the person experience the fear of emotion. In other words, “I am aroused in the presence of a scary dog; therefore, I must be afraid.”  James- Stimulus Physiological arousal Emotion trembling Lange snake increased heart rate fear theory Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate Cannon- Stimulus Sub-cortical bard snake brain -activity Emotion theory fear Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate Schechter Stimulus Emotion fear - singer Cognitive interpretation theory “I feel afraid!” Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 CHAPTER SIX PERSONALITY “One of the greatest regrets in life is being what others would want you to be, rather than being yourself”. Shannon L. Alder What does the above quotation reflects?  6.1. Meaning of Personality The word personality is derived from the word “persona‘, which has Greek and Latin roots and refers to the theatrical masks worn by Greek actors. Personality has been defined in many different ways, but psychologists generally view personality as the unique pattern of enduring thoughts, feelings, and actions that characterize a person. Personality should not be confused with character and temperament, however, both character and temperament are vital components of personality.  6.2. Theories of Personality Though there are different theories of personality, we will see only three. 6.2.1. Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality According to Freud, personality is formed within ourselves, arising from basic inborn needs, drives, and characteristics. He argued that people are in constant conflict between their biological urges (drives) and the need to tame/domesticate them. In Freud's view, personality has three structure/parts which serves a different function and develops at different times: the id, the ego, and the superego. According to Freud, the way these three parts of personality interact with one another determines the personality of an individual.. Id: If It Feels Good, Do It.Exist at birth, all psychic energy resides in the id.The seat of biologically based drives (hunger, sex, aggression.It is completely unconscious, amoral, impulsive, & irrational part of the personality.It seeks immediate gratification/pleasure/reduce tension/libido “Eat when hungry, drink when thirsty, and satisfy the sex when needed” Ego: The Executive Director.The ego begins to emerge during infancy when the child start learning..Ego devise logical and realistic strategies for meeting needs..It balances the conflicting demands of the id and the superego. Superego: The Moral Watchdog.The conscience/individual’s internalized moral standards..The superego develops from the ego as 3-to 6-year-old children internalize the moral standards and values.  For Freud, our personality is the outcome of the continual battle for. dominance among the id, the ego, and the superego. This constant conflict between them is managed by psychological defense mechanisms. Psychological problems often arise when the individual’s supply of the id, the ego, and the superego are unbalanced. To defend itself against anxiety, the ego adopts unconscious coping devices called defense mechanisms such as; – Repression: (banishing threatening thoughts, feelings, and memories into the unconscious mind). – Denial: is refusal to recognize or acknowledge a threatening situation. – Rationalization: giving socially acceptable reasons for one's inappropriate behavior. – Displacement: involves expressing feelings toward a person who is less threatening than the actual target of those feelings. – Projection: attributing one's unacceptable feelings to other people. – Reaction formation: acting the opposite from one's true feelings. – Sublimation: expressing sexual or aggressive behavior through indirect, socially acceptable outlets. – Regression: returning to an earlier stage form of behavior.  6.2.2. The trait theory of personality Psychologists who take the trait approach see personality as a combination of stable internal characteristics that people display consistently over time and across situations. Trait theorists seek to measure the relative amount of personality characteristics that they believe are present in everyone. The trait approach to personality makes three main assumption: 1. Personality traits are relatively stable & predictable over time. 2. Personality traits are relatively stable across situations, and they can explain why people act in predictable ways. 3. People differ in how much of a particular personality trait they possess; no two people are exactly alike on all traits. The result is an endless variety of unique personalities.. Though the history of the trait theory of personality has come through different stages, our attention here will be paid on the five-factor model (OCEAN) or the Big Five theory. – Openness: being intelligent, creative, inquisitive, flexible, and broad- minded…. – Conscientiousness: Being competitive, self-disciplined, organized, consistent, and deliberative... – Extraversion: being active, conversational, assertive, and seeking inspiration.The opposite end of extraversion is introversion. – Agreeableness: being considerate, good-natured, helpful, tolerant, and sympathetic rather than antagonistic… – Neuroticism: easily experiencing negative and unpleasant emotions, such as fear, anxiety, distrust, unhappiness, and insecurity…  6.2.3. Humanistic theory of personality Humanistic approaches to personality emphasize people‘s inherent goodness and their tendency to move toward higher levels of functioning instead of seeing people as controlled by the unconscious, unseen forces (psychodynamic approaches), and a set of stable traits (trait approaches). It is this conscious, self-motivated ability to change and improve, along with people‘s unique creative impulses, that humanistic theorists argue make up the core of personality. Carl Rogers and Self-Concept Like Maslow, Rogers believed that human beings are always striving to fulfill their innate capabilities and to become what their genetic potential will allow them to become. This striving for fulfillment is called self-actualizing tendency. An important tool in human self-actualization is the development of an image of oneself or the self-concept. The self-concept is based on what people are told by others and how the sense of self is reflected in the words and actions of important people in one‘s life, such as parents, siblings, coworkers, friends, and teachers.. Real and Ideal Self Two important components of the self-concept are the real self (one‘s actual of characteristics, traits, and abilities that form the basis of the striving for self-actualization) and the ideal self (the perception of what one should be or would like to be). The ideal self primarily comes from those important, significant others in one‘s life, most often the parents. Rogers believed that when the real self and the ideal self are very close or similar to each other, people feel competent and capable, but when there is a mismatch between the real and ideal selves, anxiety and neurotic behavior can be the result.. Conditional and Unconditional Positive Regard Rogers defined positive regard as warmth, affection, love, and respect that comes from the significant others (parents, friends etc.) in people’s experience. Positive regard is vital to people‘s ability to cope with stress and to strive to achieve self-actualization. Rogers believed that unconditioned positive regard, or love, affection and respect with no strings attached, is necessary for people to be able to explore fully all that they can achieve and become. Unfortunately, some parents, spouses, and friends give conditional positive regard, which is love, affection, respect and warmth that depend, or seem to depend, on doing what those people want.  Although “self-actualization” and “to be fully functioning” are highly related concepts, there are some subtle differences. Maslow’s self-actualization is a goal that people are always striving to reach. In Rogers's view, only a person who is fully functioning is capable of reaching the goal of self-actualization. To be fully functioning is a necessary step in the process of self- actualization. Maslow listed several people that he considered to be self- actualized people, for example, Albert Einstein, Mahatma Gandhi, Eleanor Roosevelt, Nelson Mandela a to this list. In Roger's view, these same people would be seen as having trusted their true feelings and innermost needs rather than just going along with the crowd, a description that certainly seems to apply in these three cases.  CHAPTER SEVEN PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS AND TREATMENT TECHNIQUES  Nature of Psychological Disorders ▪ There are three main criteria for determining whether a person has a psychological disorder: abnormality, maladaptiveness, and personal distress. 1. Abnormality (What Is Normal? ) ▪ Abnormal behavior is a behavior that deviates from the behavior of the “typical” person or the norm. ▪ A society’s norm can be qualitative and quantitative. ▪ When someone’s behavior violates the norm, standards, rules & regulations of the society, it is more likely to be a psychological disorder. ▪ The context in which “abnormal” behavior occurs must also be considered before deciding that it is symptomatic of psychological disorders. Statistical Abnormality: Having extreme scores on some dimension, such as intelligence, anxiety, or depression 2. Maladaptiveness ▪ Maladaptive behavior creates a social, personal and occupational problem. ▪ These behaviors seriously disrupt the day-to-day activities of individuals. 3. Personal Distress ▪ Our subjective feelings of anxiety, stress, tension and other unpleasant emotions determine whether we have a psychological disorder. ▪ But, the criterion of personal distress, is not sufficient for the presence of psychological disorder. Because some people’s feeling looks like distressed by its own. ▪ Hence, behavior that is abnormal, maladaptive, and personally distressing might indicate that a person has a psychological disorder. Psychological Disorders are also called mental illness, or mental health disorders, refers to a wide range of mental health disorders that affect your mood, thinking and behavior. According to DSM-IV, a mental disorder is a clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome or pattern that occurs in an individual and that is associated with present distress or disability or with a significantly increased risk of suffering death, pain, disability or loss of freedom. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM): is the primary set of rules used for diagnosing (labeling) psychological disorders. DSM—Diagnostic & Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - Published by American Psychiatric Association used by clinicians and researchers to diagnose and classify mental disorders 7.2. Causes of Psychological Disorders Prehistoric times: Abnormal behavior as demonic possession Early societies viewed the human body and mind as a battleground between external forces of good and evil. Abnormal behavior was typically interpreted as a victory by evil spirits and the cure for such behavior was to force the demons from a victim’s body. Example: Trephination: is a kind of traditional surgery system where the persons digging out the skull of the victims so as to relies out the evil spirit from the head. Trephination Exorcism: this is a kind of praying by persons standing in front of the victim.  The emergence of the scientific model Ancient Greece and Roma Even though their theories now may seems strange, early Greek philosophers established the foundation for the systematic approach to psychological disorders. Hippocrates (460-377 B.C) believed that, there were four important bodily fluids that influences physical and mental health. These are, black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood. An excess of any of these fluids could account for changes in an individual’s personality and behavior.  7.2. Causes of Psychological Disorders (Based on Perspectives) 7.2.1 The Biological Perspective Abnormalities in the work of neurotransmitter chemicals in the brain is found to contribute to many psychological disorders. E.g., over activity of the dopamine has been linked to the bizarre symptoms of schizophrenia Biological causes also include genetic inheritance, medical conditions, brain damage, exposure to environmental stimuli, and hormonal imbalances etc. Figure 12.8 FIGURE 12.8 Dopamine normally crosses the synapse between two neurons, activating the second cell. Antipsychotic drugs bind to the same receptor sites as dopamine does, blocking its action. In people suffering from schizophrenia, a reduction in dopamine activity can quiet a person’s agitation and psychotic symptoms.  7.2.2 Psychological Perspectives A. Psychodynamic theory of abnormality All behavior, thoughts, and emotions, whether normal or abnormal are influenced to a large extent by unconscious process. Behavior is affected by childhood experiences and particularly within the family Abnormal behavior happens when the intra psychic conflicts are beyond the ego defense mechanism strategies. Behavior is the result of early fixations B. Behavioral theory of abnormality Abnormal behavior as the product of learning and association. Example: depression may in part due to extinction. Figure 10.6 FIGURE 10.6 The approximate relationship between the id, ego, and superego, and the levels of awareness.. C. Humanistic theory of abnormality Failure or challenges while some one strives to fulfill his/her potential Incongruence between the real or actual and ideal self. D. Cognitive theory of abnormality: Traumatic life experiences and stressful life events Distorted perceptions Faulty way of thinking (irrational thinking) Faulty way of information processing  Other Theoretical Causes of Anxiety Disorders Humanistic-Existential: Unrealistic self-image conflicts with true self  7.2.3 Socio-cultural perspective ▪ Disturbance in intimate relationships or marital problems ▪ Social Conditions: Poverty, homelessness, overcrowding, stressful living conditions ▪ Family Factors: Parents who are immature, mentally ill, abusive, or criminal; poor child discipline ▪ Problems in extended relationships ▪ Political or social unrest ▪ Discrimination towards one’s social group ▪ Social labeling  7.3. Types of Psychological Disorders A psychological disorder is a condition characterized by abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Psychopathology is the study of psychological disorders, including their symptoms, etiology (i.e., their causes), and treatment. The term psychopathology can also refer to the manifestation of a psychological disorder. DSM-IV Classification of Major Types of Psychological Disorders 1. Anxiety disorders: Feelings of fear, apprehension, anxiety, and distorted behavior 2. Somatoform disorders: Complaints about physical symptoms, affecting different areas of the body with no physical cause 3. Mood(affective) disorders: Being dominated by emotional extremes 4. Dissociative disorders: Disturbances or changes in memory, consciousness, or identity 5. Personality disorders: When normal traits become extreme 6. Schizophrenia (the Most Severe Mental Illness): a group of psychological disorders characterized by hallucination and delusion, grossly impaired social, emotional, cognitive, perceptual functioning. 7. Sexual Dysfunctions and Deviations (paraphilia): trouble in engaging and enjoying sexual relationships 8. Eating disorders – Wrong eating pattern or behaviour 9. Substance use disorders – abuse and dependence  In this section we will try to see only mood disorder, anxiety disorder and personality disorder. 1) Mood Disorders ▪ Mood disorders are characterized by a serious change in mood from depressed to elevated feelings causing disruption of life. ▪ Depressive disorder is characterized by overall feelings of desperation and inactivity. Elevated moods are characterized by mania or hypomania. The cycling between both depressed and manic moods is characteristic of bipolar mood disorders. ▪ If you have a mood disorder, your general emotional state or mood is distorted or inconsistent with your circumstances and interferes with your ability to function. You may be extremely sad, empty or irritable (depressed), or you may have periods of depression alternating with being excessively happy (mania). The type of mood disorder include Major Depression, Dysthymic Disorder, Bipolar Disorder, and Cyclothymia. 1) Major Depression (also known as depression or clinical depression) is characterized by depressed mood, diminished interest in previously enjoyed activities, weight & sleep disturbance, loss of energy, difficulty concentrating, and often includes hopelessness and thoughts of suicide. 2) Dysthymia is often considered a lesser, but more persistent form of depression. Many of the symptoms are similar except to a lesser degree. Dysthymia is steadier rather than periods of normal feelings and extreme lows. 3) Bipolar Disorder (previously known as Manic-Depression) is characterized by periods of extreme highs (called mania) and extreme lows as in Major Depression. 4) Cyclothymia: Like Dysthymia and Major Depression, Cyclothymia is considered a lesser form of Bipolar Disorder.  2) Anxiety Disorders Anxiety is a feelings of apprehension, dread, or uneasiness normal in reaction to stress and can be beneficial in some situations. It can alert us to dangers and help us prepare and pay attention. Anxiety disorders differ from normal feelings of nervousness or anxiousness, and involve excessive fear or anxiety. Anxiety disorders are the most common of mental disorders and affect nearly 30 percent of adults at some point in their lives. However, anxiety disorders are treatable and a number of effective treatments are available. Treatment helps most people lead normal productive lives. Anxiety disorders can cause people into trying to avoid situations that trigger or worsen their symptoms. Job performance, school work and personal relationships can be affected. In general, for a person to be diagnosed with an anxiety disorder, the fear or anxiety must: ▪ Be out of proportion to the situation or age inappropriate ▪ Hinder your ability to function normally. Anxiety Disorders categorize a large number of disorders where the primary feature is abnormal or inappropriate anxiety. The disorders in this category include Panic Disorder, Agoraphobia, Specific Phobias, Social Phobia, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Generalized Anxiety Disorder. a) Panic Disorder ( may be with or without Agoraphobia): is a sudden state of anxiety for brief moments, intense, unexpected panic (panic attack) occur in the absence of actual danger. Panic attack includes feelings like one is having a heart attack, going to die, or is going insane. b) Agoraphobia (fear of public places). It refers to a series of symptoms where the person fears, and often avoids, situations where escape or help might not be available, such as shopping centers, grocery stores, or other public place. Agoraphobia is often a part of panic disorder if the panic attacks are severe enough to result in an avoidance of these types of places. c) Specific or Simple Phobia and Social Phobia represent an intense fear and often an avoidance of a specific situation, person, place, or thing. To be diagnosed with a phobia, the person must have suffered significant negative consequences because of this fear and it must be disruptive to their everyday life.. d) Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is characterized by obsessions (thoughts which seem uncontrollable) and compulsions (behaviors which act to reduce the obsession). Most people think of compulsive hand washers or people with an intense fear of dirt or of being infected. These obsessions and compulsions are disruptive to the person's everyday life, with sometimes hours being spent each day repeating things, which were already completed such as checking, counting, cleaning, or bathing. e) Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) occurs only after a person is exposed to a traumatic event such as war, natural disasters, major accidents, and severe child abuse. Once exposed to such incidents, the disorder develops into an intense fear of related situations, avoidance of these situations, reoccurring nightmares, flashbacks, and heightened anxiety to the point that it significantly disrupts their everyday life. f) Generalized Anxiety Disorder is diagnosed when a person has extreme anxiety in nearly every part of their life. It is not associated with just open places (as in agoraphobia), specific situations (as in specific phobia), or a traumatic event (as in PTSD). The anxiety must be significant enough to disrupt the person's everyday life for a diagnosis to be made.  3) Personality Disorders A personality disorder is a type of mental disorder in which you have a rigid and unhealthy pattern of thinking, functioning and behaving. A person with a personality disorder has trouble perceiving and relating to situations and people. Personality Disorders are characterized by an enduring pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving which is significantly different from the person's culture and results in negative consequences. This pattern must be longstanding and inflexible for a diagnosis to be made. There are around nine types of personality disorders, all of which result in significant distress and/or negative consequences within the individual: 1) Paranoid (includes a pattern of distrust and suspiciousness). 2) Schizoid (pattern of detachment from social norms and a restriction of emotions). 3) Schizotypal (pattern of discomfort in close relationships and eccentric thoughts and behaviors). 4) Antisocial (pattern of disregard for the rights of others, lacks a conscience (superego) including violation of these rights and the failure to feel empathy), selfish, many are delinquents or criminals. 5) Borderline (pattern of instability in personal relationships, including frequent bouts of clinginess and affection and anger and resentment, often cycling between these two extremes rapidly). 6) Histrionic (pattern of excessive emotional behavior and attention seeking). 7) Narcissistic (pattern of grandiosity, exaggerated self-worth, and need for admiration). 8) Avoidant (pattern of feelings of social inadequacies, low self- esteem, and hypersensitivity to criticism). 9) Obsessive-Compulsive (pattern of obsessive cleanliness, perfection, and control).  7.4 Treatment Techniques Treatment of mental illnesses can take various forms. They can include medication, talktherapy, a combination of both, and can last only one session or take many years to complete. Many different types of treatment are available, but most agree that the core components of psychotherapy remain the same. Psychotherapy consists of the following: 1. A positive, healthy relationship between a client or patient and a trained psychotherapist 2. Recognizable mental health issues, whether diagnosable or not 3. Agreement on the basic goals of treatment 4. Working together as a team to achieve these goals  Psychotherapy (treatments for disorders) Providing psychological treatment to individuals with some kind of psychological problems is psychotherapy. When providing psychotherapy, there are several issues to be considered. First and foremost is empathy. It is a requirement for a successful practitioner to be able to understand his or her client's feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. Second, being nonjudgmental is vital if the relationship and treatment are going to work. Everybody makes mistakes, everybody does stuff they aren't proud of. If your therapist judges you, then you don't feel safe talking about similar issues again. Therapists approach clients from slightly different angles, although the ultimate goal remains the same: to help the client reduce negative symptoms, gain insight into why these symptoms occurred and work through those issues, and reduce the emergence of the symptoms in the future. Treatment (Psychotherapy) Approaches Although, treatments for disorders vary according to the type, severity and nature of the disorder and clients’ condition generally treatments can be grouped in to two broad categories - biomedical and psychological treatments A. Biomedical therapies Refers Somatotherapy includes pharmacotherapy; biology- based treatments) ▪ Psychiatric medications (psychoactive drugs) Antianxiety drugs Antidepressant drugs Antipsychotic drugs Mood stabilizers ▪ Shock therapies such as Electroconvulsive therapy ▪ Psychosurgery such as Deep brain stimulation B. Psychological approaches Include Cognitive, Behavioral, Psychodynamic, and Humanistic therapies. Therapists who lean toward the cognitive branch will look at dysfunctions and difficulties as arising from irrational or faulty thinking. In other words, we perceive the world in a certain way (which may or may not be accurate) and this result in acting and feeling a certain way. Those who follow more behavioral models look at problems as arising from our behaviors which we have learned to perform over years. The dynamic or psychodynamic camp stem more from the teaching of Sigmund Freud and look more at issues beginning in early childhood which then motivate us as adults at an unconscious level. Humanistic therapy: reject psychoanalytic and behavioral approaches; focus on the development of human potential, responsibility for oneself, unconditional positive regards, and trust in natural processes. Cognitive approaches appear to work better with most types of depression, and behavioral treatments tend to work better with phobias. Most mental health professionals nowadays follow biopsycho-social or eclectic approach in how to treat people using different approaches. These professionals are sometimes referred to as integrationists.  Treatment Modalities Therapy is most often thought of as a one-on-one relationship between a client or patient and a therapist. This is probably the most common example, but therapy can also take different forms. Often time‘s group therapy is utilized, where individuals suffering from similar illnesses or having similar issues meet together with o