Psychology Notes First Sem PDF

H I SHIVAJI UNIVERSITY, KOLHAPUR CENTRE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION Psychology Semester-I & II Paper-I & II For B. A. Part-I K...

H I SHIVAJI UNIVERSITY, KOLHAPUR CENTRE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION Psychology Semester-I & II Paper-I & II For B. A. Part-I K J TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  Copyright © Registrar, Shivaji University, Kolhapur. (Maharashtra) First Edition 2014 Prescribed for B. A. Part-I All rights reserved, No part of this work may be reproduced in any form by mimeography or any other means without permission in writing from the Shivaji University, Kolhapur (MS) Copies : 300 Published by: Dr. D. V. Muley Registrar, Shivaji University, Kolhapur-416 004 Printed by : Shri. B. P. Patil Superintendent, Shivaji University Press, Kolhapur-416 004 ISBN-978-81-8486-566-0 l Further information about the Centre for Distance Education & Shivaji University may be obtained from the University Office at Vidyanagar, Kolhapur-416 004, India. l This material has been produced out of the Developmental Grant from UGC, Distance Education Bureau, New Delhi. (ii) TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  Centre for Distance Education Shivaji University, Kolhapur n ADVISORY COMMITTEE n Prof. (Dr.) N. J. Pawar Dr. J. S. Patil Vice-Chancellor, Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences, Shivaji University, Kolhapur Shivaji University, Kolhapur Prof. (Dr.) M. M. Salunkhe Dr. C. J. Khilare Vice-Chancellor, Dean, Faculty of Science, Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open Shivaji University, Kolhapur University, Nashi. Dr. R. G. Phadatare Dean, Faculty of Commerce, Prof. (Dr.) K. S. Rangappa Shivaji University, Kolhapur Hon. Vice-Chancellor, University of Mysore Prof. (Dr.) A. B. Rajage Director, B.C.U.D., Prof. P. Prakash Shivaji University, Kolhapur Pro. Vice-Chancellor, Prof. (Dr.) D. V. Muley Indira Gandhi National Open University, Registrar, New Delhi Shivaji University, Kolhapur Prin. (Dr.) A. S. Bhoite Shri. M. A. Kakade Pro-Vice-Chancellor, Controller of Examinations, Shivaji University, Kolhapur Shivaji University, Kolhapur Prof. (Dr.) Cima Yeole Shri. V. T. Patil, Git Govind, Flat No. 2, Finance and Accounts Officer, 1139 Sykes Extension, Shivaji University, Kolhapur Kolhapur-416001 Prof. (Dr.) A. R. Bhosale Dr. A. P. Gavali (Member Secretary) Dean, Faculty of Arts and Fine Arts, Director, Centre for Distance Education, Shivaji University, Kolhapur Shivaji University, Kolhapur. n B. O. S. MEMBERS OF PSYCHOLOGY n Chairman- Dr. Ramesh Kondiba Adsul Smt. Mathubai Garware Kanya Mahavidyalaya, Khanbhag, Sangli l Dr. Bharat Adappa Naik l Dr. Shrikant Bhanudas Chavan Head, Dept. Psychology, Babasaheb Chitale Mahavidyalaya, Mahavir College, Kolhapur Bhilawadi, Tal. Palus, Dist. Sangli l Dr. Mahadev Ganapati Jadhav l Dr. Gaoutam S. Gavali Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Prof. & Head Dept. of Applied Psychology, Urun-Islampur, Tal. Walawa, Dist. Sangli University of Mumbai, Mumbai-400098 l Dr. Arun Sambhaji Patil Rajaram College, Kolhapur (iii) TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  Centre for Distance Education Psychology Shivaji University, B. A. Part-I Kolhapur. Writing Team Authors Unit No. Semester-I Paper-I Dr. B. A. Naik 1, 4 Mahavir Mahavidyalaya, Kolhapur. Dr. E. A. Shaikh 2 Y. C. College, Pachwad Shri. A. S. Ghaste 3 Kamala College, Kolhapur Semester-II Paper-II Dr. P. B. Darure 1 Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Karad Shri. P. R. Pawar 2 D. D. Shinde Sarkar College, Kolhapur. Shri. S. K. Shitole 3 Mahavir Mahavidyalaya, Kolhapur Shri. D. V. Biraje 4 Kanya Mahavidyalaya, Miraj n Editors n Dr. Bharat A. Naik Shri. D. V. Biraje Mahavir Mahavidyalaya, Kolhapur Kanya Mahavidyalaya, Miraj Chief Editor : Dr. R. K. Adsul Dr. Sarjerao A. Salunkhe, Professor of Sociology, Chairman, BOS (Psychology) Department of Sociology, Shivaji University, Kolhapur Shivaji University, Kolhapur. (MS) (iv) TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  Preface Shivaji University, Kolhapur has revised syllabus in optional Psychology Paper-I & II for B. A. I class. The complementory book based on the prescribe syllabi "Introduction to Psychology" and General Psychology is hereby handed over to the students and teachers which gives us immense pleasure. 'Introduction to Psychology' and 'General Psychology' these and separates two parts of this book. Semester-I Paper-I is carrying 'Introduction to Psychology'. It includes four units. They are, Introduction to Psychology, Biological Bases of Behaviour, Sensation and Perception and Motivation. While 'General Psychology' is for Semester-II Paper-II includes four units, they are, Emotion, Learning and Memory, Intelligence and Personality. It is hoped this book will assists the students of Distance Education, teachers, regular mode students, and readers in general. As a part of Distance Education scheme conducted by Shivaji University Hon. Vice-Chancellor, Dr. N. J. Pawar, has inspired and guided for 'Self- Instructional Material' (SIM). We are greatful to the precious help of Registrar Dr. D. V. Muley, Director of College and University, Dr. A. B. Rajage, Dean of the Sociel Sciences Prin. Dr. J. S. Patil, Director of Centre for Distance Education Dr. A. R. Bhosale, Member of B.O.S. in Psychology, all authors of this book and all other administrative staff of the centre. All the contributer-authors have written their units paying particular attention to communicate the subject to the students, teachers and redears in general. We are also thankful to Dr. R. K. Adsul, Chairman, B.O.S. in Psychology for his Co-operation and guidance. Dr. B. A. Naik Mahavir Mahavidyalaya, Kolhapur Editor (v) TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  B. A. Part-I SIM IN PSYCHOLOGY INDEX Unit No. Topic Page No. Semester-I Paper-I Introduction to Psychology 1 Introduction to Psychology 1 2 Biological Bases of Behaviour 24 3 Sensation and Perception 58 4 Motivation 71 Semester-II Paper-II General Psychology 1 Emotion 91 2 Learning and Memory 107 3 Intelligence 129 4 Personality 153 (vii) TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  Each Unit begins with the Objectives of the Section - Objectives are directive and indicative of : 1. what has been presented in the Unit and 2. what is expected from you 3. what you are expected to know pertaining to the specific Unit once you have completed working on the Unit. The self check exercises with possible answers will help you to understand the Unit in the right perspective. Go through the possible answer only after you write your own answers. These exercises are not to be submitted to us for evaluation. They have been provided to you as Study Tools to help and keep you on the right track as you study the Unit. (viii) TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF] TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ B. A. Part - I INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Paper - I Semester-I Unit - 1 : Introduction to Psychology Unit - 2 : Biological Bases of Behaviour Unit - 3 : Sensation and Perception Unit - 4 : Motivation ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 2 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Semester - I : Unit - 1 Introduction to Psychology ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Subject Explanation 1.2.1 Definition of Psychology (Modern) 1.2.2 Goals of Psychology 1.2.3 Perspectives of Psychology 1.2.4 Psychology in Modern India 1.2.5 Study Methods in Psychology (a) Naturalistic Observation (b) Experiment 1.3 Key words and meanings 1.4 Summary 1.5 Key to self study questions 1.6 Assignment for practice 1.7 Books for Reading 1.0 Objectives After studying this unit you will be able to : 1. Understand the nature and definition of Psychology. 2. Know the goals of Psychology. 3. Know various perspectives of Psychology. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 3 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 4. Understand the development of Psychology in modern India. 5. Know the study methods in Psychology. 1.1 Introduction Psychology is a basic and applied science. Psychology as a science it deals with human and animal behavior. Psychologists do study people, but they study animals too. What makes and people and animals tick is what goes on inside their bodies and brains as well as what they do. In this unit we will discuss the definition (Modern) of psychology, goals of psychology, perspectives of psychology, psychology in modern India and various study methods in psychology. 1.2 Subject Explanation 1.2.1 Definition of Psychology (Modern) ‘Psychology’ word comes from Greek word ‘Psukhe’ and ‘logus’. ‘Psukhe’ means soul and ‘logus’ means reason or science. Today modern meaning of 'Psukhe' is mind and 'logus' is science. On this base earlier psychology was called as a science of soul. Today psychology is become a science as Physics, Botany, Chemistry, Biology etc. The subject matter of psychology is behavior. In Psychology now a days human behavior and mental processes are studying scientifically. Modern definition of Psychology “Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.’’ In this definition behavior, mental processes and scientific concepts are important. Behavior includes all of our outward actions and reactions, such as talking, facial expressions and movements. Behaviour includes anything a person or animal does that can be observed in some way. Mental processes refer to all the internal, covert activity of our minds, such as thinking, feeling, learning, and remembering. The mental processes are called cognitive processes. Why scientific? To study behaviour and mental processes in both humans and animals, psychologists have to observe them systematically and objectively. By using scientific methods, psychologists are able to find answers to questions about the nature of human behaviour and thought processes. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 4 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ In short modern definition of Psychology focuses on : 1. Basically Psychology is a science, and 2. Psychology studies behaviour and mental processes by using scientific methods. Questions for Self-study - 1 M. C. Q. 1. Psychology is basic and …………… science. (a) natural (b) theoretical (c) applied (d) scientific. 2. Psychologists do study people, but they study …................ too. (a) birds (b) animals (c) insects (d) pets. 3. Psychology word comes from ………….. word psukhe and logus. (a) English (b) Russian (c) French (d) Greek. 4. Today the subject matter of psychology is ………………. (a) invisible (b) nonscientific (c) behaviour (d) soul. 5. The mental processes are called …………. processes. (a) Cognitive (b) Scientific (c) Physiological (d) Social. 1.2.2 Goals of Psychology Every Science has its goals. Psychology is also a science. It has also some grals In physics, the goals are concerned with how the physical word works. In astronomy the goals are concerned with to chart the universe and understand both how it come to be and what it is becoming. In Psychology, there are four goals. The aim of these goals is to uncovering the mysteries of human and animal behaviour. The goals of psychology as follows : 1. Description / To describe : What is happening? First goal of psychology is to understanding anything is to give is a name or label. Description involves observing a behaviour and noting everything about it : what is happening? where it happens? to whom it happens? and under what ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 5 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ circumstances it seems to happen? For example, a teacher might notice that a young girl in his second-grade classroom is behaving oddly. She is not doing her homework, her grades (works) are slipping badly, and she seems to have very negative attitude toward school and study. Through this description a girl we will get a picture of that girl’s behaviour. What she is doing. The description of what she is doing gives a starting place for the next goal : Why is she doing it ? The goal of the description provides the observations of behaviour. 2. Explanation : Why is it happening ? To find out why the girl student is doing all these things in school. The teacher of that school should ask the school counselor for counseling. Her parents might be asked to take her to a pediatrician to make sure that there is no any physical illness. In other words all are trying to explain girls behaviour. Finding explanation for behaviour is a important step in the process of forming theories of behaviour. A theory is a general explanation of set of observations of facts. The goal of the explanation will helps to Psychologists to build the theory. Through this explanation it seems that this girl student is having dyslexia. Dyslexia means an inability to read at expected levels for a particular age and degree of intelligence. Then the next goal is prediction. 3. Prediction : When will happen again ? Prediction means determining what will happen in the future. In the above example, the school counselor or psychologists would predict that this girl student will probably continue to do poorly in her schoolwork and a may never be able to reach her full learning potential. Predicting behaviour is important; it enables psychologists to help people anticipate situations and learn how to express their feeling in manageable reasonable ways. But description and explanation are per requisites to predicting behaviour and helping people manage it. 4. Control : How can it be changed ? Control, change, manage or the modification is fourth goal of psychology. But this goal has been some what controversial in the past. Some people hear the word ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 6 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ control and think brainwashing, but that is not the focus of this goal. The goal is to change a particular behaviour from an undesirable one to a desirable one. Such efforts also include attempts at improving the quality of life. In the above example of the girl student, there are some learning strategies that can be used to help a child who has dyslexia (learning Disorder) improving reading skills (Aylward et al., 2003; Shaywitz, 1996). Counselors, Psychologists, Psychotherapists and educators would work together to search a training strategy which works best for this dyslexic girl. In short the goals of Psychology are to describe, the basic components of behaviour to explain them, to predict them, and potentially to control or manage them. Not all psychologists or counselors will try to meet all four goals. In some cases, the main focus might be on description and prediction as it would be for a personality theorist who wants to know what people are like and what they might do in certain situations. They use description and prediction. Some psychologists are interested in description and explanations for observed behaviour. But experimental psychologists who design research to find explanations for observed behaviour. In this situation experimental Psychologists uses the description. Therapists, of course, would be more interested in control or modification. Although the other three goals would be important in getting to that goal. These goals of Psychology have not really changed since the psychology’s beginnings, but the methods of achieving them certainly have changed. Questions for self-study - 2 M. C. Q. 1. What is happening? means …………... (a) explanation (b) prediction (c) description (d) control. 2. Why is it happening? means ……………. (a) prediction (b) description (c) explanation (d) control. 3. When will happen again? means …………. (a) description (b) explanation (c) control (d) prediction. 4. How can it be changed ? means ………….. (a) control (b) prediction (c) explanation (d) description. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 7 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 5. Therapist would be more interested in …………… or modification. (a) explanation (b) description (c) control (d) prediction. 1.2.3 Perspectives or approaches of Psychology : Psychologists subscribe to many different perspectives or approaches in trying to analyze human behaviour. These perspectives have been developed over time across the history of psychology and serve to orient researchers providing them with a frame of reference. A specific perspective to the study of behaviour is called school of psychological thought. In psychology we study human behaviour and mental processes. All perspectives are trying to explain human behaviour and mental processes. But no one perspective perfect to explain the causes of behaviour and mental processes. Through these effects psychologists have developed various perspectives in psychology. The various perspectives of psychology as follows : 1. Psychodynamic perspective : Psychodynamic is the theory and therapy based on the work of Sigmund Freud. Dr. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) has developed the psychodynamic perspective. According to this perspective human behaviour is motivated by various internal energies and internal conflicts. Which are not easily accessible. We are not aware of all wishes, thoughts, feelings, conflicts and urges and yet they may directly influence our behaviour in various ways. These are called unconscious processes. Dr.Sigmund Freud Unconscious mind concept has coined by Freud. Sexual dissatisfaction, unfulfilled motives, conflicts, wishes and destructive thoughts are suppressed in our unconscious mind. But these things are not visible. Psychoanalytic theory assumes that maladjustment is a consequence of anxiety resulting from unresolved conflicts and forces of which a person may be unaware. Freud emphasized the idea that childhood experiences influence future adult behaviour and that sexual energy fuels day-to-day behaviour. 2. Behavioral Perspective : American Psychologist J. B Watson (1878-1958) challenged the functionalism as well as psychoanalysis, with his own science of behaviour, which is called behaviourism. Behaviourism is the science of behaviour ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 8 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ that focuses on observable behaviour only. Behavioural perspective rejects the mind or mental processes and emphasis only on observable and measurable behaviour. Thats why J. B. Watson is called the father of behaviourism. According to Watson for understanding the behaviour it is necessary to study the environment is which behaviour occurs. Our all behaviour depends on environment. Watson believed that if we control the environment, we can modify or J. B. Watson change the behaviour and bring expected changes in behaviour. Watson based a lot of his ideas on the work of Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov, in his experimental work with dogs, had shown that a reflex such as salivation, which is normally produced by actually having food in one’s mouth, could be caused to occurs in response to a totally new and formerly unrelated stimulus, such as sound of a bell. He would ring the bell, give the dogs food, and they would salivare. After several repetions, the dog would salivare to the bell before the food was presented a learned reflexive response. This process was called conditioning. Watson believed that every human behaviour is learned. After Watson B. F. Skinner (1904-1994) systematically Ivan Pavlov expended the behaviorism. He conducted served experiments on rat and Pigeons, and developed operant conditioning. In operant conditioning describes learning in which a voluntary response in strengthened or weakned, depending on its positive or negative consequences. For example a child who cries and rewarded by setting her his mothers attention will cry again in the future. Behavioral perspective focuses on how observable responses are learned, modified, and forgotten. It usually focuses on current behaviour and how it B. F. Skinner is acquired or modified rather than inherited characteristics or early childhood experiences. Behavioral perspective is still a major and important perspective in psychology today. It has also influenced the development of other perspectives, such as cognitive psychology. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 9 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 3. Humanistic perspective : This is new perspective in perspective in psychology which is know as third force in Psychology. The perspective is response to psychodynamic perspective and behavioral perspective. In the early to mid 1990s, psychodynamic perspective and behavioral perspective were dominant in psychology; Behaviorism was seen as a very ‘mechanical’ theory. In this theory stimulus Abraham Maslow goes in, response comes out, and what happens in the middle is of no interest. The environment determines behaviour and the individual has no control on it. Humanistic perspectives focus is on people’s ability to direct their own lives. Humanist held the view that people have “free will”, the freedom to choose their own destiny. Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and Carl Roger (1902-1987) are the founders of this perspective. They emphasized the Carl Roger human potential, the ability of each person to become the best person he or she could be. They believed that studying animals in laboratories could not lead a better understanding of this human potential for ‘self actualization;’ as Maslow called it – achieving one’s full potential or actual self. In psychotherapy humanistic perspective is still very influential and popular. 4. Biopsychological perspective : Another new emerging perspective in psychology is biological perspective. Biological perspective is the study of the biological bases of behaviour and mental processes. In the biological perspective, human and animal behaviour is direct result of events in the body. Hormones, brain chemicals, tumors and diseases are some of the biological causes of behaviour and mental events. For example, due to biological cause schizophrenia occurs. 5. Cognitive perspective : This is a major force in Psychology which is emerged in 1960s. Cognitive psychology focuses on how people think, remember, store, and use information. Earlier Gestalt psychologists were supported to study of mental processes of learning. So, cognitive psychology was not a new perspective. The development of computers, the work of Piaget with children, Chomsky’s analysis of Skinner’s views of language, and discoveries in biological psychology stimulated ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 10 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ an interest in studying the processes of thought. Cognitive psychology focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, thought processes, problem solving, language and learning. 6. Sociocultural perspective : This perspective focuses on the relationship between social behaviour and culture. This is another modern perspective in psychology. Sociocultural perspective is a combination of social psychology and cultural psychology. Social psychology is the study of groups, social roles, social actions, and relationships. Cultural psychology is the study of cultural norms, values and expectations. The sociocultural perspective reminds people that how they and other’s behave is influenced not only by the particular culture in which they live. For example in a classic study Darley and Latane (1968) found that the presence of other people actually lessened the chances that a person in trouble would receive help. This term is called “diffusion of responsility.’’ Diffusion of responsibility is a tendancy in which people feel that someone else is responsible for taking action when others are present. Can we apply this conclusion for other culture? sociocultural perspectives tries to answer this question. 7. Evolutionary Perspective : This perspective focuses on the biological bases for universal mental characteristics that all humans share. This perspective explains general mental strategies and traits. Such as why we lie, how attractiveness influences mate selection, why fear of snakes is so common, and why people like music and dancing among many others. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) first suggested evolutionary theory. In this perspective, the mind is seen as a set of information-processing machines, designed by the same process of natural selection. Which allow human beings to solve the problems we faced in the early days of human evolution the problems of the early hunters and gatherers. Evolutionary psychologists would view the human behaviour of not eating bitter taste substances as an adapting behaviour that evolved as early humans came into contact with such bitter plants. Those who ate the bitter plants would die, while those who spit them out survived to pass their genes on to their offspring, who would pass the genes on to their offspring, and so on, until after a long period there is an entire population of humans that naturally avoid bitter-tasting substances. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 11 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Questions for Self-Study – 3 M. C. Q. 1. All perspectives of psychology are trying to................. behaviour and mental processes. (a) explain (b) extend (c) control (d) predict. 2. Dr. Sigmund Freud developed …………. perspective. (a) behavioral (c) humanistic (b) psychodynamic (d) social. 3. Unconscious mind concept has coined by ……….. (a) Maslow (b) Freud (c) Jung (d) Adler. 4. …………… is called the father of behaviourism. (a) Freud (b) Maslow (c) Watson (d) Pavlov. 5. After Watson ……….. extended the behaviourism. (a) Pavlov (b) Skinner (c) Rogers (d) Freud. 6. ‘Free Will’ is related with ……… perspective. (a) Cognitive (c) Humanistic (b) Behavioural (d) Sociocultural. 7. …………… Perspective was a major force in psychology which is emerged in 1960s. (a) Humanistic (b) Evolutionary (c) Cognitive (d) Behaviouristic. 8...................... perspective is combination of social psychology and cultural psychology. (a) Humanistic (b) Cognitive (c) Sociocultural (d) Evolutionary. 9. Darley and Latane coined the concept ………….. (a) Free will (c) unconscious mind (b) Diffusion of responsibility (d) Conscious mind. 10. ……….. first suggested evolutionary theory. (a) Maslow (b) Darwin (c) Rogers (d) Watson. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 12 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1.2.4 Psychology in Modern India University of Calcutta introduced psychology first in modern India. Sir Brajendra Nath Seal drew a first syllabus for experimental psychology in 1905. In 1916 Dr. N. N. Sengupta started first psychology department in India. He was its first chairman. Professor Girindra Shekhar Bose succeeded Sengupta. He was closely associated with Dr. Sigmund Freud and founded the Indian psychiatric society in 1922, which started publishing its journal ‘Samiksha’ in 1947. Professor Girindra Shekhar Bose was awarded the first Ph.D in psychology for his work on repression. This department started an applied psychology wing in 1938. Patna and Mysore universities also started courses in psychology. Dr. M. V. Gopalswami who trained at London University with Spearman the English psychologist, headed the department at Mysore. H. P. Maitri started the Institute of psychological research and services at Patna University. Professor S. M. Mohsin provided leadership at Patna and a large number of psychologists were trained. In India early focus of Psychological research was in the area of experimental psychology, psychoanalysis, and psychological testing. Many new departments were started in 1960s. During this time various applied areas of psychology received boost in institutes of management, teacher training, defense, child development and communication studies. In 1925 Indian Psychological Association (IPA) was founded and launched Indian Journal of Psychology (IJP). Lumbini Park Mental Hospital (LPMH) was founded at Calcutta in 1940. Psychology wing of Defense Research was established in 1945, which became part of the Defense Science Organization of India (DSOI). In 1962 National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS) was opened at Bangalore. Indian Academy of Applied Psychology (IAAP) was established in 1962. The major event in psychology was establishment of a hospital for mental diseases at Ranchi. In 1968 India Association of Clinical Psychologists (IACP) was founded and in 1989 and the National Academy of Psychology (NAOP) was founded as a new professional body. Today, psychology has greatly expanded it’s scope. Now psychology is doing not only study of cognitive processes, procedural justice, personality processes, motivational and emotional processes and human development. But also poverty, prejudice and discrimination, socialization and morality, healing, health and well being. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 13 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Question for Self-Study – 4 M. C. Q. 1. University of ……….. introduced psychology first in modern India. (a) Patna (b) Mysore (c) Calcutta (d) Delhi. 2. ……………. drew a first syllabus for experimental psychology in 1905. (a) H. P. Maitri (c) Sir Brajendra Nath Seal (b) Dr. N. N. Sengupta (d) Dr. M. V. Gopalswami. 3. …………. started first psychology department in India in 1916. (a) Dr. N. N,. Sengupta (c) H. P. Maitri (b) Dr. M. V. Gopalswami (d) Professor Girindra Shekhar Bose 4. Indian psychiatric society stated its Journal …….. in 1947. (a) Manus Samiksha (c) Mental health (b) Samiksha (d) Depression. 5. ………….. was awarded the first Ph. D in psychology for his work on repression. (a) Dr. N. N. Sengupta (c) Sir Brajendra Nath Seal (b) Dr. M. V. Gopalswami (d) Professor Girindra Shekar Bose. 6. Lumbini Park Mental Hospital (LPMH) was founded at ………….. in 1940. (a) Patna (b) Calcutta (c) Mysore (d) Bangalore. 7. National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro science was opened at ………............ in 1962. (a) Patna (b) Bangalore (c) Calcutta (d) Mysore. 1.2.5 Study methods in psychology Psychologist uses various study methods to study human behaviour and mental processes. These methods are naturalistic observation, laboratory observation, surveys, case studies, correlations and the experiments. Let us look more closely naturalistic observation and experiment method in detail. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 14 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ (A) Naturalistic Observation :- This type of observation is commonly used in the field of research. In this observation it is seen while the incident is happening. In naturalistic observation, the investigator observes some naturally occurring behaviour and does not intervene in the situation. Jane Goodall went to the area where chimpanzees lived and watched them, how they eat, play, mate, and sleep in natural situations. Naturalistic observation is often applicable where experimentation is impossible. This method is often useful in psychology and can be applied with great ease in studies of public opinion, the effects of advertisement and other mass communication system on consumer preferences and many other social problems and even in determining the role of such factors as heredity and environment. With the help of this method we observe peoples in their workplaces, Jane Goodall homes or on playgrounds. For example, if someone wanted to know how adolescents behave with members of the opposite sex in a social setting, that researcher might go to the mall or Superbazar. Advantages : 1. Naturalistic observation allows researchers to get a realistic picture of how behaviour occurs. 2. Clarity in observation, facts are recorded as it happens naturally. 3. Conclusions of this method are more applicable to daily life. Disadvantages 1. Observer bias in one of the disadvantage of this method. Observer bias is a tendency of observers to see what they expect to see. This bias happens when the observer doing the observing has a particular opinion about what he or she is going to see or expects to see. To reduce observer bias ‘blind observer’ way is useful. In blind observer researcher don’t know what the research problem is and, therefore, have no preconceived notions about they should see. Instead of one observer to have more observers, so that the various observations can be compared. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 15 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 2. Animals or peoples who know they are being watched will not behave normally any way, in a process called “observer effect”. So observer should remain hidden. Using one-way mirrors, we can avoid observer’s effect. 3. Each naturalistic situation is unique and unlike any other. Observations that are made at one situation way not hold true for another time even if the situation is same. Because observer have no control on the situation. Though there are disadvantages of naturalistic observation. This is useful method to observe direct human behaviour. This method applicable where experiment is impossible. (B) The Experiment :- To determine the cause of our behaviour experimental method is helpful. In this method researcher manipulate the variable they think is causing some behaviour while holding all the other variables that might interfere with the experiments results constant and unchanging. In this way, if they get changes in behavior, they know that those changes must occurred due to the manipulated variable. Experiment is a key aspect of experimentation method. Experiment is an observation under controlled situation. The Variables : There are three types of variables known as (1) Independent variable (IV), (2) Dependent variable (DV) and (3) Constant variable (CV). The name for the variable that is manipulated in any experiment is the independent variable. The response of the participants that is measured is known as dependent variable. Those variables which are kept constant in experiment is known as constant variable. The Groups : Researchers want to find that the children who watch the violent cartoon are aggressive, but how would they know if their aggressive behaviour was caused by the cartoon or was just the natural aggressive level of those particular children or the result of particular time of day they were observed. Some variables interfere with other variables. Such type of variable should be controlled by researchers. For this purpose researcher uses experimental group and control group. The name given to the group that gets the independent variable is the experimental group. This group receives experimental treatment where IV is manipulated. The other group does not get any type of treatment or IV manipulation is called controlled group. Violent cartoon watching group is experimental group and nonviolent cartoon ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 16 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ watching group is controlled group. If researchers were to find that both the group that watching the violent cartoon and the group that watches the nonviolent cartoon were equally aggressive, they would have to assume that the violent content didn’t influence aggressive behaviour at all. Importance of Randomization : Random assignment is a process of assigning subjects to the experimental or control groups randomly, so that each subject has an equal chance of being on either group. This a best way of controlling extraneous variables. Experimental Hazards : The placebo effect and the experimenter effect. There are some problems in any experiment. These problems way occur in people instead of animals. Because people one often influenced by their own thoughts about what is going in an experiment. For example in early stages of Alzheimer’s disease new drug can improve memory of Alzheimer people. Does this drug really helps to improve memory? Researcher wanted to check this problem. So they would get a sample who are in the early stages of the Alzheimer, and divided them into two groups. One group has given drug and then test for improvement. Here test of memory was taken before and after the administration of the drug. This is a experimental group. Another group does not given the drug. This is a control group. In this experiment drug is independent variable and measure of memory improvement is the dependent variable. Placebo effect is the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behaviour. In medical research, the control group subject’s has given harmless drug which is substitute for the real drug. Such as sugar pill or an injection of salt water. This substitute is called the placebo. It there is a placebo effect in experiment, the control group will show changes in the dependent variable even though the participants in that group received only a placebo. Experimenter effect : Another way that someone’s expectations about the out came of the experiment can influence the results. Experimental effect in the tendency of the experimenter’s expectations for a study to unintentionally influence the results of the study. This effect happens in experiment. When experimenter is giving some clues about the responses of the subject in experiment. Body language, tone of voice or even eye contact of the experimenter can affect on subject’s responses. This type of the behaviour of the experimenter causes to change the subject’s responses in experiment is called experimenter effect. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 17 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Single blind and double blind studies : To control placebo effect and experimenter effect various ways are used in experiment. First way is single blind study. In this study subjects don’t know whether they are in the experimental group or in the control group. In this situation subjects are blind to the treatment they receive. For long time single blind study was used in psychology. But Robert Rosenthal and Lenone Jacobson (1968) did research on students. In this research they found that, when teachers were told some students had a high potential for success and others a low potential, the students showed significant gains or decreases in their performance on standardized tests depending on which potential they were supported to have. Students have been selected randomly and randomly assigned to one of the two groups high and low. Their performances on the test were affected by the attitudes of the teachers concerning their potential. This study and similar studies after it highlighted the need to have the experimenter be ‘blind’ as well as the participants in research. So in a ‘double-blind study, neither the participants nor the person or persons measuring the dependent variable know who got what. Merits of the experiment :- 1. This is the most scientific and accurate method and it meets all the criteria of the scientific method. 2. Experimenter controls the experimental situation due to that we will get objective information. 3. Repetition which allows to do experiment again and again to verity the conclusions. 4. Possible to establish cause and effect relationship between variables. 5. Clarity and objectivity in conclusions. Demerits of the experiment :- 1. It is not possible to control all the factors of experiment. 2. Sometimes conducting an experiment is dangerous on human being e. g. due to surgery on brain what affects on behaviour. There subject may get in dangerous situation. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 18 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 3. Conclusions drawn under experimental situation are artificial. These conclusion we can’t apply it to natural situation. 4. Some events such as, war, flood, bomb blast, revolution etc. can’t studied through experiment. 5. Some times subject do not co-operate for experiment. 6. Some experiments are time and money consuming. Questions for Self-study – 5 M. C. Q. 1. ………. Went to the areas where chimpanzees lived and watched them. (a) Jane Goodall (c) Rogers (b) John Watson (d) Freud. 2. ………… observation is often applicable where experimentation is impossible. (a) Systematic (b) Naturalistic (c) Experimental (d) Interview. 3. Observer ………. Is one of the disadvantages of observation method. (a) fault (b) bias (c) error (d) control. 4. Each naturalistic situation is ………… and unlike other. (a) equal (b) unique (c) united (d) divided. 5. The name for the variable that is manipulated in any experiment is the ………….. variable. (a) dependent (b) independent (c) constant (d) neutral. 6. …………… group receives experimental treatment. (a) Controlled (c) Experimental (b) Non experimental (d) Survey. 7. For long time ………….. blind study was used in psychology. (a) double (b) single (c) neutral (d) blank. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 19 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1.3 Key Words and Meanings m Psychology : Scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. m Behaviour : Includes anything a person or animal does that can be observed in some way. m Mental Processes : Refers to all the internal, covert activity of our minds, such as thinking, feeling, learning, and remembering. m Theory : Is a general explanation of a set of observations of facts. m Dyslexia : An inability to read at expected levels for a particular age and degree of intelligence. m Prediction : Determining what will happen in the future. m Psychoanalysis : The theory and therapy based on the work of Sigmund Frend. m Behaviourism : The science of behaviour that focuses on observable behaviour only. m Biopsychological perspective : Perspective that attributes human & animal behaviour to biological events occurring in the body, such as genetic influences, hormones, and the activity of the nervous system. m Cognitive perspective : Modern perspective that focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, problem solving and learning. m Socio-cultural Perspective : Perspective that focuses on the relationship between social behaviour and culture. m Evolutionary perspective : Perspective that focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics that all humans share. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 20 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ m Observer bias : Tendency of observers to see what they expect to see. m Experiment : Observation under controlled situation. m Independent variable : In an experiment that is manipulated by experimenter. m Dependent variable : Variable is an experiment that represents the measurable response or behaviour of the subjects in the experiment. m Experimental Group : Subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable. m Control Group : Subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the independent variable and who may receive a placebo effect. m Placebo Effect : The phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behaviour. m Experimental Effect : Tendency of the experimenter’s expectations for a study to unintentionally influence the results of the study. m Single blind study : Study in which the subjects do not know if they are in the experimental or the control group. m Double blind study : Study in which neither the experimenter nor the subjects knows if the subjects are in the experimental or control group. 1.4 Summary Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. Description, explanation, prediction and control of behaviour are the goals of psychology. Psychodynamic, behavioural, humanistic, cognitive, biopsychological, socio cultural and evolutionary perspectives explain the human behaviour. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 21 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ University of Calcutta introduced psychology first in modern India. In 1916 Dr. N. N. Sengupta started first psychology department in India. Professor Girindra Shekhar Bose was awarded the first Ph. D. in psychology. Patna and Mysore Universities started courses in Psychology. Today, psychology has greatly expended its scope in all over India. Psychologist uses various study methods to study human behaviour and mental processes. Naturalistic observation and experiment are the most useful methods in Psychology. Observation under controlled situation is called experiment. 1.5 Key to Self-study Questions Questions for Self-study -1 1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a). Questions for Self-study -2 1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (c). Questions for Self-study -3 1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (c). 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (b). Questions for Self-study -4 1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (b). Questions for Self-study -5 1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (b). 1.6 Assignment for practice (a) Short Notes :- 1. Definition of psychology (modern). ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 22 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 2. Goals of psychology. 3. Psychology in modern India. 4. Naturalistic observation. (b) Answer the following questions. 1. Define psychology. Explain the goals of psychology. 2. Describe various perspectives of psychology. 3. Discuss the experiment. 4. Explain naturalistic observation. 1.7 Books for Reading. 1. Ciccarelli, S. K. and Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology, south Asian Edition, Indian subcontinent adaption, 2008, published by Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd. License of person Education Company Ltd. 2. Feldman, R. S. (2005). Understanding Psychology, 6th edition, New Delhi : Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Ltd. 3. Lefton, L. A (1991). Psychology, 4th ed, Allyn and Bacon. 4. Morgan, C. T.; King, R. A.; Weisz, J. R. and Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to Psychology, 7th ed, McGraw-Hill Book Company. 5. Psychology, B. A. I, Published by Shivaji University, Kolhapur as a SIM Book. rrr ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 23 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Semester - I : Unit - 2 Biological Bases of Behaviour ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 2.0 Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Subject Content 2.2.1 The Neuron 2.2.2 The Synapse 2.2.3 Neurotransmitters 2.2.4 The Central Nervous System (CNS) 2.2.5 The Peripheral and Autonomic Nervous System 2.2.6 Endocrine Glands 2.3 Key words and meanings 2.4 Summary 2.5 Key to self-study questions 2.6 Assignment for practice 2.7 Books for Reading 2.0 Objectives This chapter aims to help students to understand – l What are the structures and functions of neurons? l How the internal communications within the body take place? l How different parts of nervous system control our behavior? ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 24 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ l How the different parts of brain relates to our behavior, emotions and cognitions? l In what way the neurotransmitters and hormones affect our behavior, emotions and mental processes? 2.1 Introduction We are always curious about how the brain function? What cause us to behave, feel and think the way we think? We interact with our environment through the help of specialized sense organs and the brain tissues. The presence of any stimulus (physical energy of the object) around us leads to the stimulation of our sense organs. After the physical energy received by the sense organ, it is converted into neural energy through the process of transduction. This neural energy is carried to the brain through neural paths. The brain interprets the received information and decides the specific response which is call ‘behavior’. The brain sends orders to the specific organ or muscle for action. Responding to the stimulus involves the ‘receptor-effector mechanisms’. Thus, behavior can be considered as a response to environmental stimuli. The involvement of ‘receptor-effector mechanisms’ in producing behavior is called ‘biological bases of behavior’. For example, if we have blinks our eyes the signal should be created in the brain. The brain and specialized brain tissues have evolved through the million years which enable us to perform several complex behaviors such as driving a car, solving a puzzle, painting, writing, etc. Our biological structure plays an important role in deciding our behavior. This has been evident from the cases of people whose brain cells are destroyed due to accident, illnesses or drugs. This unit provides the information to the students about different parts of neurons and their functions, the process of carrying information from neuron to neuron, structure of nervous system and their role in helping us to adjust to our environment. Further, this unit will help the students to understand how the parts of brain, neurotransmitters and hormones affect our behavior, emotions and cognitive processes. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 25 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 2.2 Subject Content 2.2.1 The Neuron Nervous system is an extensive network of specialized cells that carries information to and from brain and spinal cord to all parts of the body. In other words, nervous system includes the nerves that carry information about the environmental activity to the brain and spinal cord and it also involves nerves that carry orders from brain and spinal cord to various muscles and glands. This structure and functioning of nervous system in relation to our behavior and learning is studied in one of the branch of life sciences known as ‘neuroscience’. Since the nervous system is a complex structure, its functioning can be better understood by understanding its building block. Ramon Y. Cajal, a doctor specialized in studying the slides on brain tissue, was first to theorized that nervous system is made up of individual cells. Neurons are specialized cells in the body. They are specialized in transmitting the information from body parts to brain and vice versa. They have the ability to communicate with each other and transmit the information to long distances. They receive the information from the environment and relay the messages to muscles and glands. The messages travels through the neuron are electronic in nature. There are nearly 12 billion neurons in human nervous system. Neuron varies in there types, shapes, size, composition and function. A neuron that runs from the spinal cord down may be few feet long whereas neurons in the brain are microscopic. In mammals, more than 200 types of neuron were identified. They vary in their size and shape and depending on their location and function. It is estimated that there are more than 1 trillion (100 billion) neurons in our body. Different types of neuron i.e. sensory neurons, motor neurons, interneuron, etc. have structure that is more or less similar. Neuron has three main parts: dendrites, cell body and axon. Structure and Functions :- 1. The cell body : Sphere or a pyramid like structure of the neuron is called the ‘cell body’. The cell body contains nucleus that incorporate the hereditary material that nourish the neuron and keep it alive. The hereditary material in the nucleus decides how the neuron will function. The cell body passes the message received from dendrites to axon. It also decides whether or not neuron should fire depending on the inputs from other neuron. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 26 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Source: http://www.interactive-biology.com/3247/the-neuron-external-structure Figure 2.1 : Structure of neuron 2. The dendrites : The name dendrites mean ‘branches’. The structure of dendrites is similar to the twisted branches of a tree. The dendrites receive signals (information/messages) from other neurons (as many as 10,000 neurons) and do the preliminary processing of these information or messages. 3. The axon : The word is derived from Greek word ‘axle’. To the opposite side of dendrites a long, slim, tube like extension is called an ‘axon’. The axon varies in their length. In adult human, length of axon may vary from four-thousandths of an inch to 3 feet. They end in small bulges or branches called ‘terminal buttons’ or ‘axon terminals’, which sends the message received by the dendrites to other neurons, muscles and glands. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 27 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ The protective fatty layer around the axon is called ‘myelin sheath’. Myelin sheath of the neuron in central nervous system (CNS) is made up of a special form of glial cells called schwann cell. Functions of myelin sheath includes (i) insulating the neuron, (ii) protecting axon of neuron from damage, (iii) increasing the speed of the transmitting messages and (iv) preventing signals in adjacent cells from the interfering with each others. Neural impulse jumps between the myelin sheath sections where axon is available at the nodes which increase the traveling speed on nerve impulses. The disease called ‘multiple sclerosis’ damages the myelin sheath which leads to loss of sensation, weakness, paralysis, and lack of coordination or vision problems. In peripheral nervous system, bundles of myelin coated axons travel together in cable are called ‘nerves’. There are 43 pairs of peripheral nerves in human; one nerve in each pair is on the left side whereas other is on right side of the body. Most of the nerves either enter or leaves the spinal cord. But 12 pairs of nerves in the head, called the ‘cranial nerves’ are directly connected to the brain. Glial Cell :- Glial cells are other types of specialized cells in the brain. The word glial is derived from Greek work which means glue. However, their function is more than just glue. Functioning of glial cell is important for the effective functioning of neurons. Glial cells decide which neural connections will get stronger or weaker in long run. Thus, they play vital role in learning and formation of memories. Other functions of ‘glial cell’ are as follows - l To hold the neuron to its place l To provide nutrition to the neurons l To insulate neurons l To protect the brain from toxic agents l To help the neuron to repair their damage l To remove cellular debris when neuron dies l To communicate chemically with each other and with neurons ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 28 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ NEW RESEARCH For the years it was believed that damage or injuries to neurons are irreversible. However, recent research on animals has generated some hope regarding the possibility of regenerating the neuron. The research by Canadian neuroscientist showed that the immature brain cells of mice can give rebirth to new neurons which have potential to divide and multiply. This process is called ‘neurogenesis’. Stem-cell research has revealed that physical exercise, effortful mental activities and stimulating environment can promote the production and survival of new cells; whereas aging and stress are the factors that inhibit the production of new cells. Further, addiction to nicotine can kill these new cells. Stem cells from adults are difficult to survive compared to embryonic stem cells. Embryonic stem cells are more useful as they can differentiate in any type of cells i.e. from neuron to kidney cells. Scientists have been able to reprogram the skin cells to become stem cells. These stem cells are called ‘induced pluripotent stem (IPS)’. Like embryonic stem cells, IPS cells are also capable of giving rise to all types of cells. However, further research is needed to study their effectiveness. One comparative study have shown that embryonic stem cells made more than 1000 times more desired cells than did the IPS cells. Researchers in the area of stem cells hope that transplanted stem cells will help the people to recover from various disease of brain (such as Parkinson’s disease) and damage to spinal cord and other organs of the body. Other side of this condition is that researchers in this field are facing resistance from antiabortion activists. The Nerve Impulse Transmission of message from neuron to other neurons, muscles and glands is called ‘nerve impulse’. Generally, nerve impulse travels in one direction as if we are travelling on one-way street. The route of nerve impulse begins with the dendrite, the cell body, the axon through the synapse to the dendrites of adjacent neurons. Neurons follows ‘all-or-none principle’ while working, that is, either they fire or they don’t. There is no in-between stage. Like a tube which is either ‘on’ or ‘off’ it can’t be in the mid-situation. Once the voltage is reached at certain threshold neurons will fire and if it not reaches to this level they will not fire. At any given moment a single neuron may receive thousands of inhibitory or excitatory messages from other neurons. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 29 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ At any given moment what the neuron will do depends on the average effect of all messages received from other neurons. And whether or not the message will reach to the final destination depends on types of neuron are firing, their numbers and their locations rather than depend to how strongly the individual neurons are firing. Like pulling the trigger hard does not make the bullet travel faster. Source: http://cnx.org/content/m42352/latest/Figure_21_07_05a.jpg Figure 2.2 : Nerve Impulse In a resting state i.e. when neuron is not firing, it has negative electrical charge of about -70 millivolts (1 millivolt = 1/1,000 volt). This negative charge is caused by the presence of more negatively charged ions (an atom that is negatively charged) in semiliquid solution of the inside of the cell and positively charged sodium ions outside the cell. The positively charged sodium ions are too big to enter the cell membrane and the negatively charged ions are too big to get outside because the cell membrane openings are too small. Thus, the inside of the neuron is negatively charged when it is at rest. However, as the opposite attracts each others, the sodium ion will cluster around the cell membrane. When the neuron is resting it is called ‘resting potential’. When the neuron gets stimulated by the other neuron i.e. the dendrite of the neuron receives the message, the cell membrane open up special gets one after the other. Due to which positively charged sodium ion enter inside the neuron in at rate ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 30 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ as high as 100 million ion per second and negatively charged ions get outside. Thus, the inside of the neuron become positive and outside of neuron is negatively charged. This reversal of electrical charge is known as ‘action potential’ which intern cause electrical current or impulse. After the impulse has passed through particular section of the axon, positive ions are passed through this section, its charge returns to negative, while action potential continues to travel along the axon. After the action potential a neuron doesn’t fire immediately as the cell membrane of that region doesn’t allow the positive ions to enter inside for a few milliseconds. However, if the neuron has to fire immediately it requires stronger stimulation than when the neuron had reached its normal resting state. New Research In the last decade, neuroscientists have discovered new type of neuron known ‘mirror neuron’. These types of neuron are fired when person enacts a particular action and even when they observe another person carrying out same action. New research suggested that mirror neuron may help in explaining our capacity to understand others intentions (predicting what they will do). Few scientists have suggested that root of empathy and language development lies in mirror neuron. Neuron differs in terms of the speed of nerve impulse travelling and the frequency with which it fires. The speed of travel of nerve impulse along an axon is depends on the size of axon and the thickness of myelin sheath. The travelling speed of impulse for the axon with small diameters is about 2 miles per hour and for longer and thicker axon the average speed can be more than 225 miles per hour. In unmyelinated (without myelin sheath) axon action potential in each point in gives rise to new action potential at the next point. But in myelinated action potential jumps from one nod to another due to which the nerve impulse travels faster. Nerve impulse in the babies travels slowly than older children and adults because myelin sheaths on their axons are not yet fully developed. Some neurons are capable of firing as many times as 1000 times per seconds. 2.2.2 The Synapse Neuron communicates with each other and with muscles and glands in ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 31 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ electrochemical language. However, they do not touch each other directly. The minuscule space between the axon terminal of one neuron and dendrites of another neuron is called ‘synaptic cleft’. The space involving the axon terminal of one neuron, cell body or dendrites of another neuron and synaptic cleft is called a ‘synapse’. The axon of a neuron may have thousands of terminals and single neuron can have synaptic connection with many other neurons. Thus, the communication link between neurons in the nervous system may run into the trillions or even the quadrillions. For communication between the neurons it is important to send the nerve impulse across synaptic cleft. This is possible when transmitting neuron release the molecules of chemical substance known as ‘neurotransmitters’ from its synaptic vesicles (tiny sacs in the tip of the axon terminals) into the synapse. The neurotransmitter molecules fit into receptor sites of receiving neuron dendrites as a key fits a lock. This can either have excitatory or inhibitory effect on receiving neuron depending on which receptor sites are activated. If the effect is excitatory then the receiving neuron will fire (pass the nerve impulse ahead); if the effect is inhibitory then the probability that receiving neuron will fire is minimum. Process of inhibition is important in because uncontrolled excitation in nervous system can lead to convulsions. Further, inhibitory process allows us to sleep and coordinate our movement. Effects of neurotransmitters are of two types – excitatory and inhibitory. Excitatory effect of neurotransmitter makes it more likely that the receiving neuron will fire and an action potential continues to travel. The inhibitory effect results in prevention of decrease in the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire. At any given time the dendrites of neuron receives thousands of excitatory and inhibitory messages. When excitatory messages are more than inhibitory messages the receiving neuron will fire, but when inhibitory messages are more than excitatory messages the receiving neuron will not fire; it will remain in resting state. Effective communication between the neurons can occur only when the neurotransmitters are removed from synapse; because presence of neurotransmitter in synapse can cause constant stimulation or inhibition. This condition can be achieved by deactivation of the neurotransmitters by enzymes and process called ‘reuptake’ in which the terminal buttons reabsorb the neurotransmitters from synapse. Like the liquid is absorbed the sponge. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 32 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 2.2.3 Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters are the chemical substance released by neuron from its synaptic vesicles. Neurotransmitters are chemical couriers that carry massage across the synapse. More than hundreds of chemical have been found to act as neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters can be found in the brain, the spinal cord, the peripheral nerves and in certain glands. Depending on its level, location and the type of receptor it bonds with they can affect of our mood, memory and wellbeing. The same neurotransmitter can have excitatory and inhibitory effects depending on the area of the nervous system in which it is produced. Hyper or hypo release of neurotransmitter can lead to harmful effects on our physical, emotional and psychological development. Still, it is difficult to establish the relationship between neurotransmitter abnormality and physical or behavioural abnormality because each neurotransmitter plays multiple roles and functions of different neurotransmitters often overlap. Sometime disorders can also results in neurotransmitter abnormalities. Even the food that we eat affects the secretion of neurotransmitters in our brain. Brief description of different neurotransmitters is given below - 1. Serotonin : It regulates sleep, appetite, sensory perception, temperature regulation, pain suppression and mood. Abnormal production of serotonin is associated with impulsivity, depression, suicide, aggression and coping with stress. 2. Dopamine : It involves in voluntary movement, attention, learning, memory, emotion, pleasure or reward, and response to novelty. Underproduction of dopamine is responsible for the tremors and rigidity in persons with Parkinson’s disease. Overproduction of dopamine causes symptoms of schizophrenia such as hallucination. 3. Acetylcholine (ACh) : It is found throughout the nervous system. It is involved in every move we do because it transmit messages related to skeletal muscles. It is associated with muscle action, cognitive functioning, memory and emotion. Diminish production of this neurotransmitter may leads to Alzheimer disease. 4. Norepinephrine : The release of norepinephine associated with increased heart rate and the slowing of intestinal activity during the stress, learning, memory, dreaming, waking from sleep and emotion. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 33 TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF]  Table 2.1: Summary of Neurotransmitters and their effects. Sr. Name of Location Effects Functions Associated disorders No. Neurotransmitter 1. Serotonin Brain, spinal Inhibitory l sleep, appetite, sensory per- Anxiety, mood disorder, in- cord, Gut ception, temperature regulation, somnia, Autism. pain suppression and mood 2. Dopamine Brain Inhibitory or excita- l Pleasure and reward, voluntary Parkinson, Symptoms of (Hypothalamus) tory movement, attention, learning, Schizophrenia (Hallucina- memory tion), Depression, Drug Ad- dictions 3. Acetylcholine Brain, spinal Excitatory – in brain l Movements of skeletal Alzheimer (ACh) cord, and ANS Inhibitory - muscles Neuromuscular eleswhere 34 joints l Cognitive functioning 4. Norepinephrine Adrenal Excitatory and l increased heart rate and the Anxiety, depression medulla inhibitory slowing of intestinal activity during the stress l learning, memory, dreaming, waking from sleep & emotion. 5. GABA Brain, spinal Mainly l Eating, aggression, sleeping. Sleep and eating disorders cord inhibitory l Reduction of anxiety &tension FREE STUDY MATERIAL PDF] 6. Glutamate Brain, spinal Excitatory l Memory and learning Sclerosis cord, PNS 7. Endorphin Brain, spinal Excitatory – in hypo- l Pain suppression Experience of pain cord thalamus Inhibitory - l Elevation of mood (pleasure) reduction. eleswhere ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ TAP TO JOIN OUR WATSAPP CHANNEL [CG EDUCATION HUB  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 5. GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid) : It is an inhibitory neurotransmitter found in both the brain and spinal cord. It involves in varieties of behavior ranging from eating to aggression. Abnormal level of GABA can lead to sleep disorder, eating disorder and convulsion disorder such as epilepsy. The tranquilizer valium and alcohol are effective because they permit GABA to operate effectively. 6. Glutamate : It is an excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. It is released by about 90% the brain neurons. It plays important role in memory. In Multiple sclerosis immune cell increase the secretion of glutamate. 7. Endorphins : It is a class of neurotransmitters that involved in pain reduction and elevation of mood. The exertion and the pain involved in long run may stimulate the production of endorphins. The Nervous System Our nervous system is made up of billions of neurons which are interconnected and specialized in transmitting the messages. Each neuron can be connected to 80,000 other neurons and the total number of possible neural connections within the brain is around 10 quadrillion (1 followed by 16 zeros). Thus, the structures formed by neurons are complicated. The functions of nervous system are to gather and process the information, produce the response to stimuli, and coordinate the working of different cells. We are able to do complex activities such as dancing, driving, writing, etc. only because of our nervous system. In human, nervous system has been divided into two main parts, namely the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. 2.2.4 The Central Nervous System (CNS) The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord. It receives processes, interprets and stores sensory information such as touches, smells, sounds, tastes, and so forth. It also sends out the messages to muscles, glands, and internal organs. (a] Brain Brain is a major part of the CNS; it is most complex and delicate structure of human body. It controls and regulates all parts of our body. It helps in coordinating ~~~~~~