Psychology Exam Study Guide PDF

https://quizlet.com/1000857674/learn?skipGoalIntake Try this to study What is psychology? Psychology research is the study of the research, mind, and behavior -​ Chemical imbalances control psychology -​ Explains animal and human behavior -​ Mind -​ Refers to menta...

https://quizlet.com/1000857674/learn?skipGoalIntake Try this to study What is psychology? Psychology research is the study of the research, mind, and behavior -​ Chemical imbalances control psychology -​ Explains animal and human behavior -​ Mind -​ Refers to mental activity which occurs from biochemical reactions -​ Behavior -​ Explains the total behavior of actions of animals and humans -​ Human aspects and experience influence the mind -​ Psychology increases diversity -​ Different races, cultures, gender, sexual orientations has resulted in cultural psychology where culture attempts to integrate psychology into society Psychology has become more popular over the last few decades -​ People have been more open for mental health -​ Brain imaging, genetics, and epigenetics have progressed our understanding -​ Broca region of brain if damaged would change speech and language Electroencephalography -​ Measures activity in brain -​ Functional magnetic triaging measures brain activity based on blood flow -​ The human connectome project was created in 2010 to collectively research Psychology used to be observed through behavior but now with technology and scannings of the braining it has become a science The debate between nature and nurture -​ The arguments concerning whether psychological characteristics are biologically innate or acquired though surroundings and upbringing -​ Aristotle and Plato were first people to mention Nature v Nurture -​ Believed that their relationship was inseparable Why would a critical thinker place more trust in a publication that has been peer-reviewed? -​ Ensures that study was run under a strongly designed system which addressed the question appropriately -​ William James -​ Founder of modern psychology -​ Abandoned studying medicine for psychology  -​ Taught at Harvard and was first to encourage students asking questions -​ physiologist, philosopher, who talked about mental processes -​ Wrote the first book of psychology (Principles of Psychology (1890)) -​ Operated on the idea of functionalism -​ Trained Mary Whiton Calkins -​ John Stuart -​ Published A System in Logic in 1843 -​ Observed that environment had influences on people -​ Approach to psychology was more philosophical -​ Psychology should leave the ideas of philosophy and become its own field of science -​ Explained “the science of the elementary laws of the mind” -​ Stream of consciousness -​ -​ Mary Whiton Calkins -​ First woman to set up the psychological laboratory and the first woman president of the American Psychological Association -​ William of Occam -​ Law of Parsimony -​ When two theories are proposed, the more simple theory is accepted -​ The shorter, more straightforward answer the better Schools of psychology functionalism, structuralism, behaviorism -​ Functionalism -​ An approach to psychology concerned with the adaptive purpose, or function, of mind and behavior -​ Stream of consciousness - a phrase coined by William James to describe each person's continuous series of ever-changing thoughts -​ Mind is too complex to think of as parts, better to think of it as a whole -​ Mind developed over human evolution because it is useful for preserving life -​ Natural selection -​ The desirable physical or mental traits are passed down due to environmental factors that may not favour these traits -​ Behaviorism -​ a psychological approach that emphasizes environmental influences on observable behaviors -​ Example: Why culture influences how people remember a story, how grammar is developed, how people interpret the world differently within each stage of life Know your biases  -​ Ignoring evidence(confirmation bias) -​ Prioritizes evidence they believe in while ignoring reasonable evidence that does not align with their beliefs -​ Example: -​ Selective sampling of information, those with certain beliefs only tend to follow sources that match their beliefs -​ Seeing casual relationships that do not exist -​ Believing that there is a causal connection between two events although they are unrelated -​ Example: -​ Global temperatures have risen over the last 200 years, and at the same time piracy has fallen, could global warming have decreased piracy -​ Accepting after-the-fact explanations -​ Better at explaining things in the past, but poor at predicting the future -​ Example: -​ Shooting at 2016 Pulse nightclub Orlando Florida. There was many warning signs that shooters can become violent such as a history of violence against women. However people at the time could not predict the outcome -​ Taking mental shortcuts -​ People follow simple rules, heuristics to make decisions since they are short yet have a reasonably good outcome. However, it can lead to biased outcomes through quick judgement. Availability heuristics are shortcuts to make these decisions -​ Example: -​ Child abductions are more likely to be reported on the news than more common dangers, leading to parents more over concerned about these issues than other accidents such as bicycle accidents, food poisoning or drowning. Dunning Kruger Effect -​ A study conducted in which tested college students academic performance percentile versus what they perceived -​ Found that those who were in the bottom percentile believed to be of average to above average performance. However those of the top percentile believed themselves to lower in intelligence, believing themselves to be in the lower percentile -​ Why? -​ People aren’t aware of their weaknesses and cannot asses themselves properly -​ People start with positive views -​ Most beginners think they are better than average  -​ Teaching people skills allows them to be more self aware for their performance -​ Can fix their weaknesses before they continue by identifying it Mind body problem -​ Aristo and plate debated about human psychology such as nature vs nurture -​ Dualism -​ Mind and body are separate but intertwined, coined by the philosopher Rene Descartes -​ Both contribute to each other in mental activity and behavior -​ Nature and nurture are agree that their relationship is inseparable Culture -​ Shared customs, religion, traditions, and way of life amongst the same language or group Functional magnetic resonance imaging -​ Machine to record the brain patterns using scanning and take pictures of the brain electroencephalography (EEG) -​ Measures activity in brain through changes in electrical activity which is cause by subtle changes in the magnetic field Types of psychology(developmental, cognitive, etc.) -​ Clinical -​ Understands to characterize and treat mental illnesses, the most commonly known field. Research and therapy are ways to deal with this -​ Cognitive -​ Studies foundational skills of mental behavior. Some topics include memory, sensation, perception -​ Cultural -​ Studies how geography, tradition, and religions influence psychology, which is also linked to sociology and anthropology -​ Developmental -​ Studies how people develop from childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Shows how psychology changes throughout a person's lifetime -​ Health -​ How psychology influences health, for instance how stress, loneliness, and compulsivity negatively impact someone while someone with social support and happiness has a positive effect -​ Industrial/organizational -​ Dealing interpersonal relationships during work, management, communication, and marketing and how psychology is involved in it -​ Relationships  -​ The science of psychology is involved in relationships, friendships, or partnerships. Close relationships psychologists research this topic -​ Social personality -​ Studies the everyday thoughts and feelings and the factors the influence it Critical thinking -​ systematically questioning and evaluating information using well supported evidence -​ Amiable skepticism -​ Openness and warriness -​ Be open to new ideas but wary of new findings when logic and evidence does not support it -​ Reasons for biases -​ Personal, political agenda, need to think critically Statistics (Mean mode median) -​ Mean - a measure of central tendency that is a mathematical average of a set of numbers -​ Median - a measure of central tendency that is the value in a set of numbers that falls exactly hallways between the lowest and highest -​ Mode - a measure of central tendency that is the most frequent score or value in a set of numbers -​ Difference between individual, cultural, and biological viewpoints The social level analysis -​ focuses on interpersonal behavior and social cognition -​ studies groups, relationships, persuasion, influence, workplace, attitudes, stereotypes, perceptions More questions on psychologists, prominent, William Wundt -​ father of psychology -​ Structuralism was his approach -​ Analyze the structure of the mind -​ -​ Could be broken down into basic sensations and emotions -​ Example: -​ One might see red or taste another food differently from one another -​ Introspection -​ Describes a person's thoughts and feelings in response to stimulation -​ Example:  -​ Describes a person's thoughts and feelings in response to stimulation -​ More questions on Critical thinking - systematically questioning and evaluating information using well supported evidence Replicability - repetition of a research study to confirm the results -​ The results would be the same or similar if the same format was carried out in a different study. Size of the sample also matters, the larger and more diverse the sample, the more accurate it would to represent the population Big Data -​ Uses tools from computer science to draw data and find patterns within the world of psychology Different levels of analysis, biological, social, cultural, and significant -​ biological -​ focuses on brain systems, neurochemistry, genetics -​ studies neuroanatomy, animal research, brain imaging, neurotransmitters, hormones, animals studies, drug studies, gene mechanism, heritability, twin and adoption studies -​ individual -​ focuses on individual differences, perception and cognition, and behavior -​ studies personality, gender, developmental age groups, self-concept, thinking, decision making, language, memory, seeing, hearing, observable actions, responses, physical movements -​ social -​ focuses on interpersonal behavior and social cognition -​ studies groups, relationships, persuasion, influence, workplace, attitudes, stereotypes, perceptions ​ -​ cultural -​ focuses on thoughts, actions, behaviors—in different societies and cultural groups -​ studies norms, beliefs, values, symbols, ethnicity Naturalistic observation -​ Any study conducted when the researcher is not involved Participant observation -​ A study in which the researcher is directly involved William James and his form Natural selection - psychological features that are adaptive are more likely to be passed on to future generations Epigenetics - the study of biological or environmental influences on gene expression that are not part of inherited genes Divergent and convergent thinking -​ Divergent -​ Finding multiple solutions to a situation through creativity and collaboration -​ Example: -​ Brainstorming and innovation -​ Thinking out of the box -​ Risky or unconventional options -​ Convergent -​ Being more straightforward and selecting the best possible option out of all -​ Evaluating and narrowing options Different types of studies -​ Case - Examines the atypical individual or organization. Are already existing cases that researchers use to describe and study certain phenomena. Often are used to detect certain reasons leading to the event -​ Experimental - -​ Naturalistic correlation -​ Different research method, case studies, correlational, Inferential vs descriptive statistics -​ inferential - -​ A set of procedures that enable researchers to decide whether differences between 2+ groups are probably just chance variations or whether they reflect true differences in the populations being compared -​ descriptive -​ Observing behavior to determine a behavior’s objectively. Scientifically describes human and animal behavior -​ Example: -​ An observer performing descriptive research might record the types of foods that people eat in cafeterias, count the number and types of behaviors that penguins engage in during their mating season, or tally the number of times poverty or mental illness is mentioned during a presidential debate. How to read correlation -​ If the trend of it gradually increases its a positive correlation, decreases means negative correlation Research design: -​ Natural observation - a type of descriptive study in which the researcher is a passive observer, separated from the situation and making no attempt to change or alter ongoing behavior case studies -​ Examines the atypical individual or organization. Are already existing cases that researchers use to describe and study certain phenomena. Often are used to detect certain reasons leading to the event variables- Something a researcher can change or manipulate Hypothesis - a specific, testable prediction, narrower than the theory it is based on theories - a model of interconnected ideas or concepts that explains what is observed and makes predictions about future events (based on empirical evidence) observational definitions third variable problem - a problem that occurs when the researcher cannot directly manipulate variables, the researcher cannot be confident that another, unmeasured variable is not the actual cause of differences in the variables of interest experimental biases -​ Convenience sample -​ handpicked sample, which can be biased since it could be up to the experimenters independent variable -​ The variable being manipulated or measured -​ Example: -​ One group of participants might be with several friends while reporting their opinions about e-cigarettes. Another group would be alone. Here, the independent variable is being with friends or not, which varies between the two groups dependent variables -​ The variable that is being measured, the outcome after a variable is being manipulated -​ Example: -​ Control and experiment groups - -​ control group - the participants in an experiment who receive no intervention or who receive an intervention that is unrelated to the independent variable being investigated -​ Experimental group - the participants in an experiment who receive the treatment Confound -​ Anything that may possibly disrupt an experiment, introduce an unknown, uncontrolled variable -​ Example: Four levels of analysis -​ biological -​ focuses on brain systems, neurochemistry, genetics -​ studies neuroanatomy, animal research, brain imaging, neurotransmitters, hormones, animals studies, drug studies, gene mechanism, heritability, twin and adoption studies -​ individual -​ focuses on individual differences, perception and cognition, and behavior -​ studies personality, gender, developmental age groups, self-concept, thinking, decision making, language, memory, seeing, hearing, observable actions, responses, physical movements -​ social -​ focuses on interpersonal behavior and social cognition -​ studies groups, relationships, persuasion, influence, workplace, attitudes, stereotypes, perceptions ​ -​ cultural -​ focuses on thoughts, actions, behaviors—in different societies and cultural groups -​ studies norms, beliefs, values, symbols, ethnicity scientific method - a systematic and dynamic procedure of observing and measuring phenomena, used to achieve the goals of description, prediction, control, and explanation; it involves an interaction among research, theories, and hypotheses inform ethical research -​ Governed by principles to ensure fair, safe, informed treatment of the patient -​ Respect for persons -​ Ensures people don’t undergo experiments that can be physically or psychologically harmful -​ Giving people the right information that influences their willingness to volunteer -​ Could use deception to trick participants -​ Informed consent form -​ Assuring privacy  -​ different between random assignment versus selection, -​ Random assignment - placing research participants into the conditions of an experiment in such a way that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of independent variable -​ Random selection - every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected independent and dependent variables -​ Independent variable - the variable that gets manipulated in a research study -​ Dependent variable - the variable that gets measured in a research study IRB (institutional review boards) -​ Entities that conduct ensure that participants are willing and not a danger of being harmed Hypothesis - a specific, testable prediction, narrower than the theory it is based on -​ Step 1 -​ Pose a question which turns into a theory -​ Step 2 -​ Learn more about the theory -​ Step 3 -​ Form a hypothesis to guide study based off of theory -​ Step 4 -​ Structure a study -​ Step 5 -​ Conduct the study -​ Step 6 -​ Analyze the data -​ Step 7 -​ Report the results Theory - a model of interconnected ideas or concepts that explains what is observed and makes predictions about future events (based on empirical evidence), should be falsifiable, lets researcher be able to change and evolve their thinking over time correlational studies - How variables are related towards scenarios in the real world, and describes the relationship between these variables Direction of correlation -​ Have values between -1.0 and +1.0  -​ Perfect correlation means straight line Confidentiality - personal, identifying information about participants absolutely cannot be shared with others Debriefing - a process where the researchers inform the participants of the study goals after the study is completed Anonymity - the researchers do not collect personal information, identifying information risk/benefit ratio or benefice - an analysis of whether the research is important enough to warrant placing participants at risk Justice -​ Everyone should have equal right to join and be treated with respect, and there are governing bodies to ensure they won’t be abused different types of reliability and validities, -​ Reliability - the degree to which a measure is stable and consistent over time -​ Validity -​ Construct validity - the extent to which variables measure what they are supposed to measure -​ External validity - the degree to which the findings of a study can be generalized to other people, settings, or situations -​ internal validity - the degree to which the effects observed in an experiment are due to the independent variable and not confounds Some tips to help with research questions -Read the questions twice and analyze -If an answer to the question looks wrong then cross it off -Use common logic, and whatever your familiar with to the best of your ability. -Skip if your stuck on it for too long Example Questions: (These are not on the exam but are just an example of what to expect) Scenario: A researcher spends several months observing the behavior of chimpanzees in their natural habitat without interfering. 1.​ What type of research is this? A) Case Study B) Natural Observation C) Experimental Study D) Correlational Study 2.​ Scenario: A psychologist conducts an in-depth analysis of a single patient with a rare psychological disorder. What type of research is this? A) Natural Observation B) Case Study C) Experimental Study D) Survey 3.​ Scenario: A study examines the relationship between sleep duration and academic performance. What type of research is this? A) Experimental Study B) Natural Observation C) Correlational Study D) Case Study 4.​ Scenario: Researchers manipulate the amount of caffeine intake to study its effect on memory performance. 5.​ What are the independent and dependent variables? A) Independent: Memory Performance, Dependent: Caffeine Intake B) Independent: Caffeine Intake, Dependent: Memory Performance C) Independent: Participants, Dependent: Study Design D) Independent: Study Design, Dependent: Participants 6.​ Scenario: A hypothesis states that increased physical activity leads to improved mental health. What is this hypothesis an example of? A) Theory B) Operational Definition C) Experimental Bias D) Hypothesis 7.​ Scenario: A researcher defines "stress" as the number of times a participant reports feeling overwhelmed in a week. What is this definition an example of? A) Theory B) Operational Definition C) Hypothesis D) Variable 8.​ Scenario: A study finds that ice cream sales and drowning incidents both increase during the summer. What might be a third variable in this scenario? A) Ice Cream Sales B) Drowning Incidents C) Temperature D) Season 9.​ Scenario: A researcher unintentionally influences the results of a study due to their expectations. What is this an example of? A) Experimental Bias B) Natural Observation C) Case Study D) Hypothesis 10.​Scenario: A study uses random assignment to place participants into control and experimental groups. What is the purpose of random assignment? A) To ensure confidentiality B) To control for third variables C) To define operational definitions D) To create a hypothesis 11.​Scenario: A researcher ensures that participants' identities are not linked to their data. What is this an example of? A) Confidentiality B) Debriefing C) Anonymity D) Risk 12.​Scenario: After a study, participants are informed about the true purpose of the research. What is this process called? A) Confidentiality B) Debriefing C) Anonymity D) Risk  13.​Scenario: A study measures the same variable multiple times to ensure consistency. What type of reliability is this? A) Test-Retest Reliability B) Inter-Rater Reliability C) Internal Consistency D) Construct Validity 14.​Scenario: A researcher ensures that a test measures what it is intended to measure. What type of validity is this? A) Construct Validity B) Internal Validity C) External Validity D) Criterion Validity 15.​Scenario: A study examines the effect of a new drug on reducing anxiety, with one group receiving the drug and another receiving a placebo. What type of research design is this? A) Correlational Study B) Experimental Study C) Case Study D) Natural Observation 16.​Scenario: A researcher uses a random sample of participants to generalize findings to a larger population. What is this process called? A) Random Assignment B) Random Selection C) Operational Definition D) Experimental Bias 17.​Scenario: A study investigates the relationship between two variables without manipulating them. What type of research is this? A) Experimental Study B) Correlational Study C) Case Study D) Natural Observation  18.​Scenario: A researcher ensures that participants are not exposed to harm or discomfort during a study. What ethical principle is this? A) Confidentiality B) Debriefing C) Anonymityh D) Risk Management 19.​Scenario: A study uses a control group to compare the effects of a treatment. What is the purpose of the control group? A) To ensure confidentiality B) To control for third variables C) To define operational definitions D) To create a hypothesis 20.​Scenario: A researcher uses a theory to generate a testable hypothesis. What is the relationship between a hypothesis and a theory? A) A hypothesis is a broad explanation, and a theory is a specific prediction. B) A hypothesis is a specific prediction, and a theory is a broad explanation. C) A hypothesis and a theory are the same. D) A hypothesis is an operational definition, and a theory is a variable. 21.​Scenario: A study ensures that participants' data is kept private and not shared with others. What is this an example of? A) Confidentiality B) Debriefing C) Anonymity D) Risk Management Anwser Key: B) Natural Observation B) Case Study C) Correlational Study B) Independent: Amount of Sleep, Dependent: Cognitive Performance D) Hypothesis B) Operational Definition C) Temperature A) Experimental Bias B) To control for third variables C) Anonymity B) Debriefing A) Test-Retest Reliability A) Construct Validity B) Experimental Study B) Random Selection B) Correlational Study D) Risk Management B) To control for third variables B) A hypothesis is a specific prediction, and a theory is a broad explanation. A) Confidentiality