Psychology Final Exam Review PDF

Psychology Final Exam Review 1. The Brain and Behavior Key Concepts: ​ Localization of function: The theory that specific functions are localized to particular areas of the brain. For example, aggression, attention, hunger, and embarrassment are linked to distinct brain structures....

Psychology Final Exam Review 1. The Brain and Behavior Key Concepts: ​ Localization of function: The theory that specific functions are localized to particular areas of the brain. For example, aggression, attention, hunger, and embarrassment are linked to distinct brain structures. ​ Neuroplasticity: The brain's ability to change its structure and function over time due to environmental inputs or innate genetic factors. ​ Widely distributed function: Functions that are not localized to any single brain region but involve multiple interconnected areas. Studies: HM (Milner, 1966): ​ Aim: To better understand the effects of surgery on patient HM. ​ Procedure: Milner employed method triangulation, using various methods such as cognitive tests, observations, interviews, and brain imaging. ​ Findings: HM was unable to form new explicit memories (anterograde amnesia), but his procedural memory remained intact. This provided evidence for the localization of memory functions. ​ Strengths: ○​ High methodological rigor through triangulation. ○​ Longitudinal case study provided detailed data over time. ​ Limitations: ○​ Limited generalizability due to the single case. ○​ Ethical concerns around consent, given HM’s memory issues. Maguire et al. (2000): ​ Aim: To investigate whether structural changes occur in the brains of London taxi drivers due to extensive spatial navigation experience. ​ Procedure: MRI scans were conducted on taxi drivers and compared with non-taxi drivers.  ​ Findings: Taxi drivers had a larger posterior hippocampus, while non-taxi drivers had a larger anterior hippocampus. This demonstrated neuroplasticity in response to environmental demands. ​ Strengths: ○​ Use of advanced MRI technology for detailed imaging. ○​ Large sample size increases validity. ​ Limitations: ○​ Correlational study; causation cannot be confirmed. ○​ Gender and cultural bias due to the specific sample. Sperry and Gazzaniga (1967): ​ Aim: To investigate the effects of hemisphere disconnection on cognition and behavior. ​ Procedure: Split-brain patients (those with a severed corpus callosum) were tested using visual and tactile tasks. ​ Findings: Each hemisphere operated independently, with specific functions localized (e.g., language in the left hemisphere). ​ Strengths: ○​ Controlled laboratory conditions ensured reliability. ○​ Provided groundbreaking insights into lateralization of function. ​ Limitations: ○​ Small sample size limits generalizability. ○​ Tasks were artificial and lacked ecological validity. 2. Neurotransmitters and Behavior Key Concepts: ​ Agonist: Chemicals that enhance the action of neurotransmitters. ​ Antagonist: Chemicals that inhibit neurotransmitter activity. ​ Neurotransmitter: Chemicals in the brain that transmit signals between neurons. ​ SSRI (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors): Medications used primarily to treat depression by increasing serotonin availability. Studies: Crockett et al. (2010):  ​ Aim: To investigate the role of serotonin in moral judgment. ​ Procedure: Participants were given either a placebo or citalopram (an SSRI) and completed moral dilemmas. ​ Findings: Increased serotonin led to more aversion to harming others, suggesting serotonin’s role in promoting prosocial behavior. ​ Strengths: ○​ Double-blind design reduces bias. ○​ Clear operationalization of moral dilemmas. ​ Limitations: ○​ Artificial scenarios limit ecological validity. ○​ Ethical concerns regarding manipulation of brain chemistry. Fisher et al. (2005): ​ Aim: To study the neural mechanisms of romantic love. ​ Procedure: Participants viewed images of their romantic partners while undergoing fMRI scans. ​ Findings: Romantic love activated dopamine-rich areas, such as the ventral tegmental area (VTA). ​ Strengths: ○​ Use of fMRI provided detailed insights into brain activity. ○​ Innovative approach to studying emotion. ​ Limitations: ○​ Small sample size. ○​ Cultural bias in romantic relationship norms. Martinez and Kesner (1991): ​ Aim: To investigate the role of acetylcholine in memory formation. ​ Procedure: Rats were trained to navigate a maze and then injected with acetylcholine agonists or antagonists. ​ Findings: Rats with enhanced acetylcholine performed better, while those with inhibited acetylcholine performed worse, linking acetylcholine to memory. ​ Strengths: ○​ Controlled experiment with clear variables. ○​ Replicable design. ​ Limitations: ○​ Animal study limits applicability to humans. ○​ Ethical concerns about animal testing. 3. Hormones and Behavior Key Concepts: ​ Hormones: Chemical messengers such as cortisol, oxytocin, and testosterone, which influence behavior. Studies: Newcomer et al. (1999): ​ Aim: To investigate the effects of cortisol on verbal memory. ​ Procedure: Participants were given high, low, or placebo doses of cortisol and completed memory tests. ​ Findings: High cortisol levels impaired memory performance, suggesting a link between stress and cognitive function. ​ Strengths: ○​ Double-blind, placebo-controlled design increases validity. ○​ Ethical precautions taken regarding cortisol dosage. ​ Limitations: ○​ Short-term study limits understanding of long-term effects. ○​ Possible individual differences in stress responses. Baumgartner et al. (2008): ​ Aim: To investigate the role of oxytocin in trust. ​ Procedure: Participants engaged in a trust game while receiving either oxytocin or a placebo via nasal spray. ​ Findings: Oxytocin increased trust even after breaches, highlighting its role in social bonding. ​ Strengths: ○​ Innovative use of trust games. ○​ Use of fMRI provided insights into neural mechanisms. ​ Limitations: ○​ Artificial setting. ○​ Ethical concerns about altering trust levels. 4. Genes and Behavior Key Concepts: ​ DNA Methylation: Chemical modifications affecting gene expression without altering DNA sequence. ​ Epigenetic changes: Environmental factors causing changes in gene activity. ​ Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism. ​ Phenotype: Observable characteristics resulting from genotype and environment interaction. Studies: Caspi et al. (2003): ​ Aim: To investigate the role of the 5-HTT gene in depression. ​ Procedure: Participants were genotyped and assessed for depression following stressful life events. ​ Findings: Individuals with a short allele of the 5-HTT gene were more likely to develop depression under stress. ​ Strengths: ○​ Large sample size. ○​ Groundbreaking work in gene-environment interaction. ​ Limitations: ○​ Self-reported stress data may lack reliability. ○​ Ethical concerns about genetic determinism. Bouchard et al. (1990): ​ Aim: To study the genetic basis of intelligence using twins. ​ Procedure: Monozygotic and dizygotic twins raised together and apart were assessed for IQ similarities. ​ Findings: Monozygotic twins raised apart had high IQ correlations, suggesting a genetic influence on intelligence. ​ Strengths: ○​ Large, diverse sample of twins. ○​ Comprehensive data collection. ​ Limitations: ○​ Assumes equal environments for twins. ○​ Correlation does not equal causation. Bouchard and McGue (1981): ​ Aim: To examine genetic inheritance of intelligence. ​ Procedure: Meta-analysis of twin studies on IQ. ​ Findings: High heritability estimates for intelligence, particularly in monozygotic twins. ​ Strengths: ○​ Large dataset improves generalizability. ○​ Robust statistical methods. ​ Limitations: ○​ Potential publication bias in meta-analysis. ○​ Limited insight into environmental influences.