Psychology: Ethnicity, Immigration, and Gender

         **Ethnicity** is also [socially defined], but these groups are defined by [shared language, religion, nationality, history, of some other cultural factor]. Less statistically defined than racial groups and can change over time.  \-      A **minority** can be absorbed into majority after a...

         **Ethnicity** is also [socially defined], but these groups are defined by [shared language, religion, nationality, history, of some other cultural factor]. Less statistically defined than racial groups and can change over time.  \-      A **minority** can be absorbed into majority after a few generations. A minority is a group that makes up less than half the total population and is treated differently due to some characteristic.           Racial differences can cause drastic events such as: ·       Genocide or population transfer (forcefully moved) ·       Intercolonialism (minorities segregated and exploited) ·       **Assimilation** -- person's culture comes to resemble that of another group \-      Many differences in healthcare, education, wealth, morality rate, etc.  \-      Interesting discrimination is present in criminal justice system. More incarceration of minorities.           **Pluralism** encourages racial and ethnic variation.           Dominant groups have racialized minority groups -- ascribes some racial identity to members of racial group they didn't identify for themselves.          Demographic Structure of Society -- **[Immigration]**          **Immigrants** face severe challenges when arriving to a new country. People want to help them but are wary of their different cultures.           \# of immigrants can put pressure on welfare capabilities of a country, as they tend to move to industrialized nations like NA, Middle East, and Europe/Asia.  \-      Can be functional by alleviating labour shortages and reducing population dam in heavily populated origin countries.  \-      However, can be exploited by countries unconcerned about global inequalities from profit seeking.          Immigration itself can cause problems \-      If too much immigration, area can't handle demand for social services \-      Too many skilled people may leave their home country.  \-      Fear/dislike of immigrants a different race than host country. \-      People immigrate because of war, famine, or can't make a living in home country. Better jobs and education.  \-      Transnational corporations take advantage of cheap labour to bring costs down.           Every country has own policies, but often biased depending on where applicant is from.  \-      In 1986 US passed the Immigration Reform and Control Act, forbade hiring of illegal immigrants. But extended amnesty and legal status to illegal immigrants already there.  \-      Some policies encourage families of immigrants to move, to keep money in local economy instead of sending them money.  \-      European Union, residents in EU can live and work anywhere in EU.  \-      Since 9/11 immigration more difficult, increased security checks.           Demographic Structure of Society -- **Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation**          [Media] often portrays gender as **binary** -- female vs. male.           However, there's 5 considerations: **biological**, **identity** (gender they identify as), **expression** (gender they express), **attraction** (gender they're romantically attracted to), and **fornication** (gender they're sexually attracted to)   \-      **Biological** -- XX or XY, but some **intersex** people have 1 or 3+, so express different sex characteristics. Some intersex characteristics are born with both male and female characteristics due to hormones.  \-      **Gender** -- a social construction, two factors -- **identity and expression**. Many possible combinations, ex. someone biological male and identify as male (**cis-gender**), or identify as female (**trans-gender**). Cis-gender male can express a socially male or female appearance. Some people are **gender queer** (not male or female), and can present as gender queer or identify as male/female. \-      **Sexual Orientation** -- not dependent on sex/gender of a person. You can be attracted to any gender but only have sex with females, or any combination. You can be attracted to no gender. Stereotype norm is **straight**.  ·       Is there a "gay gene"? No answer. Even if there is, does that make their love any less real? **NO** ·       Restrictions on rights of homosexuals -- ex. marry or visit partner in hospital.           Many differences between men and women, discrimination, pay, expected roles. Men more likely to get heart disease while women more likely to have psychological illness.  \-      Societal expectations affect what problems will be reported.           **Gender schema theory** -- cognitions that constitute the [male identity].            **Gender script** -- organized information regarding order of actions appropriate to familiar situation.           **Urbanization** is movement of people from [rural to urban areas. ]           **Rural** is anywhere with \1000 people per square mile. \-      **Cities** have over 50 000 people.  \-      **Metropolises** have over 500 000 people.  \-      If many metropolises are connected - **megalopolis** (ex. 44 million people in NYC area).          Cities are sites of culture, but also host to more crime. According to conflict theory, they're sources of inequality. From symbolic interactionism viewpoint, cities are places where people can get different perspective of looking at life.           Why people move to urban areas? \-      More job opportunities, and more options for education/healthcare/etc. Isn't enough land for everyone to farm.  \-      Crowding can occur in cities. And less sense of belonging, so we join groups to form communities.           **Suburbanization** is [movement away from cities], but commute for work can be long and harder to get medical help. However, suburbs form their own economic centres. Ex. Silicon Valley.   \-      Beyond suburbs are **exurbs**, prosperous areas outside the city where people live and commute to city to work, like suburbs.           **Urban renewal** -- revamping old parts of cities to become better. But can lead to **gentrification**, which means when redone they target a wealthier community which increases property value. People there before are pushed out because they can't afford it -- leads to great inequality in cities.           **Rural rebound** -- people getting sick of cities and moving back to rural areas. People who can afford to leave the city.  \-      Often move to scenic rural areas           **[Population Dynamics]**          Looks at how population of a region changes - factors that increase/decrease a population.          3 factors contribute to total **growth rate**: fertility, migration, mortality \-      **Fertility** is ability to have babies, which add to the population. **Fecundity** is the potential reproductive capacity of a female.  \-      **Migration** is number of people moving permanently into/out of countries. Doesn't change total people on planet but does change in a region.  \-      **Mortality** is death, decreases population.           To measure these, we use rates. Measure rates over **1 year**, and per **1000** people so rates are comparable.           What affects population changes: \-      Increase: **Births** and **immigration.** Can also look at births in terms of fertility rate. On avg women in US gives birth to 2.1 children in her life**.** If 2, no increase/decrease in population.  \-      Decrease: **Death** and **emigration**. Can calculate mortality rate by age group, or country.           Growth rate is not always a positive number. While world population grows, growth rate of some countries is negative.           Demographic Transition          **Demographic transition** is a model that changes in a country's population -- population will eventually stop growing when country transitions from high birth/death rates to low fertility/mortality. \-      This stabilization often occurs in developed countries.  \-      When immigrants travel to developed countries, they affect demographic transition of the country by increasing fertility and decreasing mortality (often healthier people migrate).           5 stages:          1) **High birth rates** due to limited birth control, advantage for more workers, and high death rate due to disease. Most countries at this stage prior to 18^th^ century when death rates fell in Europe. Large young and small old population.          2) Seen in beginnings of developing populations. **Population rises as death rate decreases**. 19^th^ century Europe.           3) **Death rates and birth rates fall** because of birth control, fewer childhood deaths, and children no longer needed to work -- not economically beneficial. Slower expansion and longer lived elderly.          4) **Population stabilizes**, both birth and death rates are low. Population is large.           5) Speculation. **World population stabilizes**, Malthusian Theorem suggests. Run out of resources, food shortage. Leads to public health disaster and force population to stabilize and decrease birth rate **[-- negative growth rate.]**          **[Globalization Theories]**          **Globalization** is the sharing of culture, money and products between countries.          Not recent -- ex. 1^st^ century BCE Silk Route.           **World-Systems Theory** -- importance of world as a unit, divides world into 3 countries: core, periphery, and semi-periphery. \-      **Core** = Western Europe and US.  \-      **Periphery** = Latin America and Africa. Greatly influenced by and depend on core countries and transnational corporations.  \-      **Semi-periphery** = India and Brazil, middle-ground.  ·       Criticized on being too focused on core countries and ignoring class struggles of individual countries.          **Modernization Theory** -- all countries follow similar path of [development to moder]n society.  \-      With some help traditional countries can develop similarly to today's developed countries did.          **Dependency Theory** -- Reaction to Modernization theory. Uses idea of [Core + Periphery] countries to look at [inequalities].  \-      Periphery countries export resources to Core countries, and don't have means to develop.           **Hyperglobalist Perspective** sees it as a new age in human history -- countries become interdependent and nation states themselves are less important. Don't agree if good or bad.           **Skeptical Perspective** -- critical, considers it as being [regionalized] instead of globalized.  \-      Third world countries aren't being integrated into global economy with same benefits.           **Transformationalist Perspective** - doesn't have specific cause or outcome. Believe [national governments are changing], perhaps becoming less important but difficult to explain change so simply.  \-      They see the world order is changing. Just a new world order is being designed. Outcome unknown.           Globalization -- **Trade and Transnational Corporations**          Trade has been created and supported by international regulatory groups like World Trade Organizations, and agreements like the NA Free Trade Agreement. No country completely independent.  \-      Without groups trade would be impractical. They regulate flow of goods and services between countries, reduce tariffs, and make customs easier.  \-      Agreements often benefit **private industries** the most.          Companies that extend beyond borders of a country are called **multinational/transnational corporations**. \-      Ex. McDonalds, or General Electric. Half of employees working in other countries.  \-      Some T&Cs have more weight than entire nations -- influence economics/politics by donating money, and influence global trade laws.           [2 major impacts on country] -- on economy and culture. Much of economic globalization results from global market competition for cheap labour, and locating factories in cheapest locations.  \-      Developing nations provide incentives like tax-free zones or cheap labour so T&Cs can bring jobs and industry to agricultural areas.  \-      **Negatives:** Workers abroad exploited, and **outsourcing** can hurt core country.  \-      **Positive:** Better allocation of resources, higher product output, more employment worldwide, cheaper prices. Cultural practices also passed and spread abroad  -- **diffusion**.  **Social Movements**          When a group of people come together with shared idea, can create lasting effects by shaping future of society.  \-      Need **organization, leadership**, and **resources** to make an impact.           **Activist movements** aim to change some aspect of society, while **regressive/reactionary movements** resist change.           Several theories of why they form: \-      1. **Mass Society Theory** -- Scepticism about groups, said they only form for people seeking refuge from main society. Ex. Nazism.  \-      2. **Relative Deprivation Theory** -- actions of [groups oppressed/deprived of rights] that others in society enjoy. Ex. Civil Rights Movement, a response to oppression to people of color. *3 things needed for social movement*: **relative deprivation**, **deserving better**, and belief **conventional methods are useless** to help.  ·       Criticisms: people who don't feel deprived join social movement even if they don't suffer themselves. And too risky for oppressed to join a movement due to lack of resources. And when all 3 present, no social movement created. \-      3. **Resource Mobilization Theory** -- looks at social movements from different angle. Instead of looking at deprivation of people, focuses on [factors that help/hinder a social movement] like *access to resources*. Need money, materials, political influence, media, and strong organizational base to recruit members -- charismatic figure needed.  ·       Ex. Martin Luther King Jr. in Civil Rights Movement.  \-      4. **Rational Choice Theory** -- people compare [pros and cons of different actions] and choose what they think is [best for themselves].  ·       Have to assume all actions can be listed, and transient. Also assumes person has full knowledge of outcomes. Rarely all true.           Can cause widespread panics, crazes (fads, ex. the anti-vaccine movement).           Social movement begins with **incipient stage** (public takes notice). Will either succeed or have to adapt. In the end, become part of bureaucracy they try to change -- become absorbed into institutions.          **Culture** **         Culture and Society** \-      **Culture** is way of life shared by group of individuals -- the beliefs and values that bind a society together. Very diverse, can include artwork, language, and literature. \-      **Society** is the way people organize themselves -- bunch of people who live together in a specific geographic area, and interact more with each other than outsiders. Share a common culture over time.  ·       Culture = rules that guide way people live, and society = structure that provides organization for people.  \-      Society includes **institutions**, ex. family, education, politics, which all meet basic human needs. The hardware on a phone.  \-      Culture provides [guidelines for living], ex. software or apps on a phone, constantly being updated. What makes society run.  Culture talks about [rules and instructions within a society] that teach them how to live. \-      Refers to ideas and things [passed from generation] to the next -- language, customs, etc. Varies as we travel around the globe.  ·       Ex. Chinese and Spanish spoken all around the world; Many like meat and vegetables, while others eat tofu and grasshoppers; Ways of greeting differ          4 main points: \-      1. All people ***share culture*** with others in their society, provides [rules and expectations] for carrying out daily rituals and interactions. \-      2. Culture is ***adaptive*** -- it evolves over time.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      \-      3. Culture ***builds on itself*** -- creation of culture is ongoing and cumulative, and societies build on existing cultures to [adapt] to new challenges and opportunities.  \-      4. Culture is ***transmitted*** -- from one generation to the next. We teach a way of life to the next generation. Humans are only mammals with culture to adapt to environment.           Subculture vs. Counterculture          **A subculture** is culture of a [meso-level] sub-community that distinguishes itself from the larger dominant culture of society.  \-      Smaller than a nation but unlike a microculture, it is large enough to support people throughout their entire lifespan.  \-      **Meso-level** = before micro and macro level. [Medium] sized groups.  \-      Subcommunity = smaller community in larger one.  \-      It's different in some way, but still share some things with larger society.           A **microculture** can't support people throughout their lifespan, refers to groups/organizations only affecting limited period of one's life.