Psychology Condense 3 PDF

\-      **Opiates** are used to treat [pain and anxiety].  Ex. Heroine and morphine. NOT a depressant.  ·       Used to treat pain because they act at body's receptor sites for ***endorphins***.  ·       Different class than depressants, even though overlapping for anxiety, rest act on GABA recept...

\-      **Opiates** are used to treat [pain and anxiety].  Ex. Heroine and morphine. NOT a depressant.  ·       Used to treat pain because they act at body's receptor sites for ***endorphins***.  ·       Different class than depressants, even though overlapping for anxiety, rest act on GABA receptors while opiates act on endorphin Rs. ·       Lead to euphoria, why taken recreationally           **Stimulants**          Stimulate or intensity neural activity/bodily functions. \-      Range from caffeine to cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamines, and ecstasy. In between is nicotine.  \-      **Caffeine** (inhibits ***adenosine receptors***) can disrupt your sleep. **Nicotine** also disrupts sleep and can suppress appetite.  ·       At high levels, nicotine can cause muscles to relax and release stress-reducing neurotransmitters (to counteract hyper alertness).  ·       Both physiologically addicting. ·       Withdrawal symptoms from both. Like anxiety, insomnia, irritability.  \-      **Cocaine** is even stronger stimulant -- releases so much ***dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine*** that it depletes your brain's supply. Intense crash and very depressed when it wears off. ·       Regular users can experience suspicion, convulsions, respiratory arrest, and cardiac failure.  \-      **Amphetamines and methamphetamines** also trigger release of ***dopamine***, euphoria for up to 8 hours. ·       Highly addictive ·       Long-term addicts may lose ability to maintain normal level of dopamine          **Hallucinogens**          These drugs cause hallucinations, altered perception. Many types of hallucinations. Some even have medical uses. \-      **Ecstasy** -- synthetic drug both a [stimulant and hallucinogen].  ·       Increases ***dopamine and serotonin*** and euphoria. Also stimulates the body's NS. Can damage neurons that produce serotonin, which has several functions including moderating mood.  ·       Causes hallucinations and heightened sensations, ex. artificial feeling of social connectedness.  \-      **LSD** -- [interferes with serotonin], which causes people to experience hallucinations. ·       Hallucinations are visual instead of auditory  \-      **Marijuana** is also a mild hallucinogen. Main active chemical is THC, which heightens sensitivity to sounds, tastes, smells.  ·       Like alcohol, reduces inhibition, impairs motor and coordination skills.  ·       Disrupt memory formation and short-term recall. ·       Stays in body up to a week.  ·       Used as medicine to relieve pain and nausea           Some hallucinogens are used for **PTSD treatment**. Allow people to access painful memories from past that's detached from strong emotions -- so they can come to terms with it.           **Drug Dependence and Homeostasis**          **Homeostasis** is how you maintain temperature, heartbeat, metabolism etc.  \-      If you take amphetamines, body quickly tries to lower HR and get back to normal. Brain is smart about this. ·       If regular drug user, might take it at same time of day.  ·       If you're cocaine addict, your brain starts to recognize external cues like room, needles, etc. and knows it's about to get big dose of drug. Brain tells body to get head start -- lowers HR before you take drugs. Why you need higher dose over time. \-      What would happen if you get those cues and don't get the drug? You get a crash.  \-      If you're in a new location but take same level of drugs, might get overdose.       **    Routes of Drug Entry** \-      **Oral** is ingesting something, one of slowest routes because goes through GI tract -- half hour. \-      **Inhalation** is breathing or smoking, because once you inhale goes straight to brain -- 10 seconds. \-      **Injection**- most direct, intravenous means goes right to vein. Takes effects within seconds. Can be very dangerous.  \-      **Transdermal** -- drug is absorbed through skin, ex. Nicotine patch. Drug in patch has to be pretty potent, released into bloodstream over several hours.  \-      **Intramuscular --** stuck into muscle. Can deliver drugs to your system slowly or quickly. Quick for example is epipen. Or vaccines, slowly.  ·       Faster route of entry = more addictive potential.          **Reward Pathway** in the Brain          When you first experience pleasure, brain releases neurotransmitter called **dopamine**. Produced in the **ventral tegmental area** (VTA), in the **[midbrain.]** \-      VTA sends dopamine to the: ·       **Amygdala, Nucleus accumbens** (controls motor functions), **Prefrontal cortex** (focus attention and planning),  **Hippocampus** (memory formation). ¨     Nuc. Accum., amygdala and hippocampus are part of the **mesolimbic pathway**.  \-      Different stimuli active circuit to dif degrees.  \-      VTA releases dopamine and receptors uptake dopamine -- amygdala says this was enjoyable, hippocampus remembers and says let's do it again, and nucleus accumbens says let's take another bite. Prefrontal cortex focuses attention to it.  ·       At same time **dopamine goes up**, ***serotonin goes down***, partially responsible for feelings of satiation. Less likely to be satiated or content. \-      Increased genetic risk.  \-      Biological basis comes from animal models  ·       Ex. Rats and drug experiment, rats keep increasing dosage. Or if sick drug + favorite food = avoids it, addictive drug + fav food = wants more.  \-      Addiction takes over [rational mind.]          **Tolerance and Withdrawal**          **Tolerance** means you get used to a drug so you need more of it to achieve the same effect. \-      Ex. Just took cocaine, lots of dopamine in synapse. Post-synaptic neuron has receptors for dopamine. ***Long-term stimulation*** can lead to brain [shutting down some receptor] -- same amount of drugs won't cause same high.           If you go through period of not having the drug, you experience **withdrawal symptoms**.  \-      Things less strong as cocaine won't give you as strong of an effect, so dopamine levels decrease and you feel depressed, anxious, etc. (varies).  \-      Will do whatever it takes to get that high.  \-      Once you've built up tolerance, need drug to feel "normal" again.  \-      However, with time and effort brain can reverse back.           Substance Use Disorders \-      Drugs include alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, opioids (heroin/morphine), stimulants (cocaine), hallucinogens (LSD), inhalants, and caffeine \-      We have to consider what happens when drugs enter the body and when they exit. 2 different processes: **intoxication** and **withdrawal**.  ·       Intoxication refers to behavioural and psychological effects on the person, drug-specific. Ex. "drunk" or "high" ·       Withdrawal is when you stop after using for prolonged time.  \-      Can result in **substance-induced disorders**. Could be disorders of mood (mania/depression), anxiety, sleep, sexual function, psychosis (loss of contact with reality).  \-      Which can lead to **substance use disorders**. Causing real degree of impairment in life, at work, school, or home.  ·       How do you know? By looking at their **usage**. Are they using increasingly large amounts, stronger cravings, more time recovering from it, failing to cut back, affecting obligations at work/home/school?  ·       Second factor is presence of **withdrawal**.  ·       Also **tolerance**.  \-      With caffeine, can't develop substance-use disorder.       **    Treatments and Triggers for Drug Dependence** \-      Treatments address physiological + psychological symptoms.           To treat, detox. But sometimes require strong medications to address symptoms. ·       ***For Opiates*** such as heroine act at neural receptor site for endorphins to reduce pain and give euphoria.  ¨     **Methadone** activates opiate receptors, but acts more slowly, so it dampens the high. Reduces cravings, eases withdrawal, and can't experience the high because receptors are already filled.  ·       ***For stimulants*** like tobacco, medications replace nicotine by delivering low levels of nicotine through patch, or deliver chemicals that act on nicotine receptors in brain. In this [case prevents release or reuptake of dopamine.] Help reduce cravings. ·       ***For alcoholics***, meds [block receptors in reward system] of alcohol. Also reduce symptoms of withdrawal.  ¨     Important to prevent relapse during this early stage by minimizing negative symptoms. \-      **Inpatient** treatments require residence at a hospital or treatment facility, **outpatient** means they can live at home and come in for treatment.  \-      **Cognitive behavioural therapy** (CBT) addresses both cognitive and behavioural components of addiction. Recognize problematic situations and develop more positive thought patterns and coping strategies, and monitor cravings. ***Long-lasting!*** \-      **Motivational interviewing** involves working with patient to find intrinsic motivation to change. Very few sessions and can be doorway for patient to engage in another treatment. \-      **Group meetings** such as AA involve 12-step program -- acceptance, surrender, and active involvement in meetings.  (Evidence they're helpful) \-      **Relapse** is when patient can slip and go back. More addictive substances make relapse more likely. Why it's hard for people to stay clean.           **Attention**          Divided Attention, Selective Attention, Inattentional Blindness, and Change Blindness          **Attention** is a limited resource  \-      **Divided Attention**. doing  two things at once you end up [switching between tasks] rather than doing them simultaneously.  \-      When you switch you're exercising your **selective attention** -- process of reacting to certain stimuli selectively as they occur simultaneously. There are two types of cues that can direct our attention: ·       **Exogenous** - don't have to tell ourselves to look for them (Ex. Bright colors, loud noises, "pop-out effect")  ·       **Endogenous** (require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it, ex. A mouse arrow, or the cocktail party effect).  ·       **Cocktail party effect** -- ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd. Or when someone calls your name. \-      **Inattentional blindness** -- we aren't aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field. \-      **Change blindness** -- fail to notice changes in environment.           **Theories of Selective Attention** \-      **Shadowing task** -- left ear hear one thing, right ear another thing. Told to repeat everything said in one ear and ignore the other. We can learn about how selective attention works by seeing what they filter out in other ear.           **1) Broadbent's Early Selection Theory ** \-      All info in environment goes into **sensory register**, then gets transferred to **selective filter** right away which filters out stuff in unattended ear and what you don't need to understand it (accents etc.), and finally **perceptual processes** identifies friend's voice and assigns meaning to words. Then you can engage in other cognitive processes. ·       Some problems -- if you completely filter out unattended info, shouldn't identify your own name in unidentified ear. Cocktail party effect.          **2) Deutch & Deutch's Late Selection Theory** \-      Places broadband selective filter after perceptual processes. Selective filter decides what you pass on to [conscious awareness].  \-      But given limited resources and attention, seems wasteful to spend all that time assigning meaning to things first.           **3) Treisman's Attenuation Theory** \-      Instead of complete selective filter, have an ***attenuator*** -- weakens but doesn't eliminate input from unattended ear. Then some gets to perceptual processes, so still assign meaning to stuff in unattended ear, just not high priority. Then switch if something important.         ** The Spotlight Model of Attention and Multitasking**          **Spotlight model of attention** Selective attention -- takes info from [5 senses], but don't pay attention to everything.  \-      Aware of things on an [unconscious level] ·       **Priming**, where exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus, even if we haven't been paying attention to it.  ·       We're primed to respond to our name. Why it's a strong prime for pulling our attention.          **Resource model of attention** -- we have [limited resources] in attention.  \-      Both models say something about our ability to multitask -- not very good at it. Supported by research study.           **Multitasking/divided attention** \-      What about talking on phone or texting while driving?  ·       Maybe not multitasking, just switching spotlight back and forth.  \-      What about singing to radio?  ·       **Task similarity** -- ex. Listening to radio while writing a paper. Better to listen to classical music, because harder to multitask with similar tasks.  \-      **Task difficulty** -- harder tasks require more focus. \-      **Practice** -- activities well practiced become automatic, or things that occur without need for attention. Whether task is automatic or controlled (harder).           **Memory**          **Information processing model** proposes our brains are similar to computers. We get input from environment, process it, and output decisions.  \-      First stage is getting the input -- occurs in sensory memory (sensory register). Temporary register of all senses you're taking in.  \-      You have **iconic** (what you ***see***, lasts half a second) and **echoic** (what you ***hear,*** lasts 3-4 seconds) memory           **Working memory** is what you're thinking about at the moment.  ·       [Verbal info] -- any words + numbers in both iconic and echoic memory ¨      Is processed in the **phonological loop**.  ·       [Visual + verbal] info -- Need coordination of the two -- the **central executive** fills that role.  ¨     Creates an integrated representation that stores it in the **episodic buffer** to be stored in long-term memory.  ·       [Visual + spatial info] are processed in the **visuo-spatial sketchpad** \-      ***Magic number 7*** -- can hold **7 +/- 2** pieces of info at a time. Why phone \#s are 7 digits long.  \-      Explains the **serial position effect** (primacy and recency effects)           The **dual coding hypothesis** says it's easier to remember [words associated with images] than either one alone.  \-      Can use the **method of loci** -- imagine moving through a familiar place and in each place leaving a visual representation of topic to be remembered.           Final stage is **long-term memory**. Capacity is unlimited. 2 main categories: explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative).  \-      **[Explicit Memory] (Declarative) -** are facts/events you can clearly describe.  ·       Anytime you take vocabulary test or state capitals you're using **semantic memory** (has to do with words). So remembering simple facts.  ·       Second type is **episodic memory** (event-related memories).  \-      **[Implicit memories] (Non-declarative)** involve things you may not articulate -- such as riding a bicycle, **procedural memories**.  \-      Other is **priming** -- previous experiences influence current interpretation of an event.          ** Encoding Strategies**          **Encoding** is transferring sensory information into memory.  \-      If you want to remember more than 7 things, need to process that info so it stays in long-term memory. \-      1. **Rote rehearsal** --You say same thing over again. ·       Least effecive \-      2. **Chunking** -- we group info we're getting into meaningful categories we already know.  \-      3. **Mnemonic Devices** -- imagery (crazier the better), pegword system (verbal anchors like words that rhyme with the number -- 1 is gun), method of loci (tying info to locations), acronym  \-      4. **Self-referencing** -- think about new info and how it relates to you personally.  ·       Also preparing to teach -- learning it as if to teach it to someone else (putting more effort into understanding + organizing info) \-      5. **Spacing** -- spreading out studying to shorter periods