PSYCH133D Exam 2 Notes PDF

WEEK 4 Lecture 1: Caregiving – (01/29) Temperament vs. Personality (Onset and Stability) -​ Temperament: present from birth and is relatively stable throughout an individual’s life. It is the raw material upon which personality is built. -​ Personality: some core aspects of personality...

WEEK 4 Lecture 1: Caregiving – (01/29) Temperament vs. Personality (Onset and Stability) -​ Temperament: present from birth and is relatively stable throughout an individual’s life. It is the raw material upon which personality is built. -​ Personality: some core aspects of personality begin to emerge in early childhood; however, personality continues to evolve and develop throughout a person’s life in response to experiences, social interactions, and personal growth Temperament vs. Personality (Biological Basis) -​ Temperament: considered to be largely biologically determined, influenced by factors like genetics and neurobiology. It can be observed in infants and is thought to be relatively consistent across different cultures and environments. -​ Personality: influenced by a wider range of factors, including genetics, environment, culture, and individual experiences. It is more malleable and subject to change over time. Temperament vs. Personality (Defining Components) -​ Temperament: common traits include factors like activity level, adaptability, intensity of reaction, persistence, inhibition, and sensitivity to stimuli. These traits influence how an individual responds to various situations. -​ Personality: encompasses a broader array of traits, characteristics, and patterns of behavior, such as extroversion vs. introversion, openness, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability (the “Big Five” personality traits). Temperament vs. Personality (Development) -​ Temperament: sets the stage for the development of personality. It provides the initial framework upon which personality traits and characteristics are built over time. -​ Personality: traits continue to develop and evolve throughout an individual’s life in response to experiences, social interactions, and personal growth. Personality traits may also become more refined and differentiated as a person matures. Temperament vs. Personality (SUMMARY) -​ Temperament: the innate, biologically-based behavioral and emotional tendencies that individuals exhibit from an early age -​ Considered to be largely influenced by genetics -​ Present even in infancy -​ Foundation for the development of personality -​ Personality: encompasses a broader range of characteristics and traits that develop over time and are influenced by a combination of genetic, environmental, and sociocultural factors -​ Enduring patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving -​ An individual’s distinctive way of interacting with the world Epigenetics -​ Gene → gene expression → phenotype (what is expressed) -​ We don’t express all of our genes -​ Gene expression is probabilistic, not deterministic -​ Epigenomes can change in real-time, genes cannot -​ Epigenome is heritable -​ Epigenome can change for the worst or the better – if we make positive changes -​ Mice studies: Lifestyle choices/trauma can effect offspring Intergenerational Inheritance -​ Shock mice in foot every time they smell strawberry – teach them to be afraid of strawberries -​ More neurons in brain allocated to scent of strawberry -​ Breed mouse that is scared of strawberries with another mouse -​ Separate children from parents (they never encounter strawberries with shock) – present them with the smell of strawberries and their stress response increases -​ Even grandchildren show this response -​ Human example: Dutch Famine -​ Offspring of pregnant ladies during the famine had slower metabolism, greater risk of diabetes, etc. -​ Epigenetics happened in real time to pregnant woman -​ Offspring’s metabolism behaving as if it’s in a famine -​ Epigenetic changes are adaptive in real time – it’s adapting as if the current environment will always be that way – however, environment often changes which leads to a mismatch Orchid-Dandelion Hypothesis -​ Orchid children (highly reactive/”sensitive”) -​ Sensitive to the environment -​ Very beautiful -​ Inhibited -​ Dandelion children (less reactive/“sensitive”) -​ Not sensitive to the environment -​ Not as beautiful -​ Uninhibited -​ If your environment is high quality, you would rather be an orchid -​ If your environment is low quality, you would rather be a dandelion -​ Interaction with environment is important!! Differential Susceptibility -​ Eg. highly intelligent child will flourish if they grow up in a rich home with many resources BUT highly intelligent child will not flourish in poor environment -​ Cannot categorize people as better/worse based on temperament alone, we must also consider their environment  -​ How graph should really look – most people are in the middle or on a spectrum -​ Most people are tulips – for example The role of the caregiver -​ “Goodness of Fit” (Chess & Thomas, 1991) -​ Best outcomes when temperament of child is compatible with temperament of caregiver -​ It’s entirely the caregiver’s job to create a compatible dynamic between caregiver and child -​ A child can’t change the way they behave (they are just temperament)– they are how they are -​ Carpenter vs. Gardener -​ Carpenters draw a plan – precision involved with a blueprint to get to the perfect outcome -​ Put seed in, wait to see it sprout, nurture the flower no matter how it comes out -​ This perspective for a caregiver will have the best outcome for their children The role of the caregiver: regulation -​ Sensitive period for developing regulation comes later in life -​ Will need help for the time you are starting to build these skills  -​ Coregulation -​ Mutual influence: one person’s (behavioral, emotional, and/or physiological) state affects the other’s state -​ Bidirectional relationship -​ Caregiver-child relationship: especially in infancy and early childhood -​ Shapes personality based on the coregulation you encountered as a child -​ Need caregiver to do this regulation – can’t just tell them to stop crying – child literally does not know how to do this The role of the caregiver: synchrony -​ Synchrony -​ The dynamic, coordinated, and reciprocal interactions that occur between infants and their caregivers (Tronick, Als, Adamson, Wise & Brazelton, 1978) -​ Need to match child’s affect – eg. if they are sad, don’t laugh at them -​ In the same way you console a friend after a breakup, even if you did not like their boyfriend -​ Still-face experiment (Tronic et al., 1978) -​ Mother stops making facial expressions back at the baby -​ Baby reacts with negative emotions – they are stressed -​ Highly sensitive and reactive to emotional state of caregiver The role of the caregiver: attachment -​ Attachment: the deep and enduring emotional bond that forms between the infant and their primary caregiver(s) (Bowlby, 1969) -​ An innate, biological instinct that serves as a survival mechanism for infants -​ Infant needs to invest emotionally in an adult (even if this adult is not good) to stay alive -​ Infants are biologically predisposed to seek proximity to their caregivers -​ They are more likely to explore their environment and engage with the world when they feel secure in the presence of their attachment figure -​ “Secure Base”: a foundation from which the child can confidently explore their environment -​ As they explore, a child with a secure base regularly checks in with their caregiver. They might look back, make physical contact, or seek reassurance through verbal or nonverbal cues. The role of the caregiver: attachment behaviors -​ Attachment behaviors: -​ Secure base: a foundation from which the child can confidently explore their environment -​ Stranger anxiety: distinguishing familiar (ie. safe) individuals from unfamiliar ones -​ Being afraid of people they don’t know  -​ Separation anxiety: developmentally appropriate fear about separation from an attachment figure -​ Shortly after stranger anxiety is developed -​ They distinguish that they are independent from caregiver – leading to fear of separation from caregiver -​ Expect to see these 3 factors in a good quality attachment -​ But there’s variation – depends on the quality of care from the caregiver The role of the caregiver: attachment quality -​ Attachment styles: -​ Secure -​ Caregivers who consistently provide sensitive and timely care -​ Insecure: Anxious/Ambivalent -​ Caregivers with low competence; are inconsistent in their quality of care -​ Insecure: Anxious/Avoidant -​ Caregivers who are dismissive or frequently neglect or rebuff the child’s bids for attention -​ Insecure: Disorganized -​ Frequently seen in cases of caregiver abuse -​ This is how we define love – we seek out romantic partners that replicate how our caregivers treated us Attachment and Personality -​ HOW does attachment influence personality? -​ Emotion regulation -​ Eg. child is having a tantrum -​ Messages you received as a child when you cried shapes how you feel now about letting out your emotions -​ Trust/Intimacy -​ Bartholomew’s two-dimensional model of attachment (1990) -​ Positive view of others, negative view of self = ambivalent -​ Positive view of self, negative view of others = avoidant -​ Negative view of self and others = fearful -​ Romantic relationships -​ Internal working models -​ Schema for love and relationships – you adopt this subconsciously -​ Answer to these questions informs the relationships we seek out -​ Self-esteem -​ Secure attachment and high self-esteem -​ Reliable and consistent caregiving contributes to a positive sense of self-worth and confidence -​ Avoidant attachment and defensive self-esteem -​ Might downplay the importance of close relationships and appear more self-sufficient -​ Self-esteem can be tied to maintaining a sense of independence and avoiding vulnerability -​ Ambivalent/anxious attachment and fluctuating self-esteem -​ May have more fluctuating self-esteem -​ Self-worth may be more dependent on external validation -​ Might experience higher self-esteem when they feel accepted and loved, but lower self-esteem during periods of uncertainty or perceived rejection -​ Disorganized attachment and low self-esteem -​ Lack of a reliable caregiving figure can lead to feelings of insecurity and a compromised sense of self-worth -​ Independence & Autonomy -​ Secure: healthy -​ Avoidant: overemphasized: may downplay the importance of close relationships and appear more self-reliant -​ Ambivalent/Anxious: underdeveloped: seeking constant reassurance  -​ Disorganized: confused and uncertain about how to navigate the world independently -​ Social competence -​ Secure: high; confident, empathetic; effective communicator -​ Avoidant: may demonstrate social competence, however might also have a tendency to downplay the importance of close relationships and rely more on themselves -​ Ambivalent/Anxious: might be highly attuned to social cues, however social competence may be influenced by a strong need for reassurance/validation -​ Disorganized: challenged; may experience difficulties in forming and maintaining healthy social relationships -​ Social competence ultimately impacts identity formation (Adams & Gullotta, 2012) -​ Mental health -​ Secure: healthy -​ Avoidant: higher rates of emotion regulation difficulties or emotional dissociation -​ Ambivalent/Anxious: higher rates of anxiety and depression -​ Disorganized: higher rates of mental health problems in general, including PTSD WEEK 5 Lecture 2: Self Concept – (02/03) Self-Concept -​ Self-concept: the perception or view of oneself, including one’s traits, attributes, abilities, and attitudes (Myers, 2012) -​ Can only come after self-awareness has been established Early emergence of self -​ When/how does self-concept begin to form? -​ Prenatally -​ Every unit of increased anxiety in mother – the fetus will blink 21% faster -​ Inverse is true for depression -​ Newborns: -​ Basic Sensory Awareness: feel sensations such as hunger, discomfort, and pleasure; have rudimentary senses of touch, taste, smell, and hearing -​ Primary Focus on Immediate Needs: initially, sense of smell is centered on fulfilling immediate physiological and emotional needs, such as hunger, comfort, and warmth -​ Not aware of self, but aware of physical needs  -​ Reflexes -​ Proprioceptive feedback: sensory information from the muscles, joints, and tendons that help one to locate the position of their body in space -​ Early infancy: -​ Few days after birth -​ Differentiating between self and others -​ Babies put fist in mouth – but respond differently when someone approaches their mouth -​ Rooting reflex for others but not for themselves – first indication that there is a distinction between made between self and others -​ Two-month revolution: -​ Responding directly to others -​ Onset of social smiling – smiling in response to attention they are getting -​ Infants: -​ Agency: “Sticky Mittens” (3-5 months) -​ Having understanding that we are controlling our bodily functions -​ They develop this at 5 months, but can do it earlier if they get sticky mittens -​ Will look more at caregiver when they realize they have this agency – they realize their caregiver also has agency (mind-blowing moment) -​ Used to test if at-risk children have autism -​ By 7-9 months, infants begin to distinguish themselves from their caregivers -​ Stranger wariness/separation anxiety -​ Increased communication/joint attention -​ Huge increase in ability to connect socially with others -​ Remember: Quality of connection shapes the emerging self -​ By 14 months, infants realize others as self-reflection -​ The “looking glass” self: individuals develop their concept of self by observing how they are perceived by others -​ Eg. In an embarrassing moment, you think about how others perceived you -​ This is really where your self-concept comes from -​ Study: Man used forehead to turn on light – the boy then turns light on with his forehead (due to social conformity) -​ More important to conform then to do what is normal or efficient -​ Toddlers: -​ Self-recognition emerges around 18-24 months -​ They start to recognize themselves in a mirror – you understand that this is what others see  -​ Rouge test -​ Mirror self-recognition test -​ Blush placed on child’s forehead -​ If they reach out to touch dot on mirror – they think it’s a stranger in the mirror -​ If they look in mirror and touch own forehead – they recognize it is them in the mirror -​ Fateful human self-reflexive loop -​ Consciousness as co-consciousness -​ Conscious awareness of self is always a co-consciousness WEEK 6 Lecture 3: Self Concept cont. – (02/10) Early emergence of self: Toddlers -​ Ted Talk -​ We can learn to do these things from how parents respond to our emotions: -​ Repression -​ In adulthood: extra glass of wine, getting lost in work -​ Aggression -​ In adulthood: violence, bullying, negative self talk -​ Expression -​ If we learn it’s okay to express our emotions -​ In adulthood: journal our thoughts, call a friend, do yoga -​ Emotional intelligence develops in children if parent holds space for their emotions – listen and validate them -​ Children can’t be what they don’t see -​ What are the mechanisms of self-identification development? -​ Social contributions -​ Attachment quality -​ The looking-glass self -​ Cognitive contributions -​ Shift to symbolic thought – leads to symbolic play -​ Play/symbolic play -​ Children use their imagination to assign new meanings or roles to objects and engage in activities that involve make-believe or fantasy -​ Self-concept begins to emerge -​ A child’s increasing ability to make choices, exert control over their own actions, and assert their individuality influences self-concept  -​ In western culture we believe children should have little to no autonomy – but this is bad -​ Autonomy helps build self-confidence and easier decision making in adulthood (since they are allowed to make their own decisions) Early emergence of self: Preschool -​ Representation of categorical self: -​ Physical characteristics -​ Possessions -​ Behaviors -​ Emergence of categorical self -​ Becoming sensitive to the ways in which people differ and begin to categorize -​ Start putting ourselves into clusters of defining attributes -​ Need for autonomy Early emergence of self: Children -​ Private self vs. public self -​ Our perception of the world is everyone’s perception of the world -​ Hide and seek example -​ Eventually learn that people have their own perceptions of their and your minds -​ Theory of Mind -​ The ability to understand and attribute mental states, such as beliefs, intentions, desires, and emotions, to oneself and others -​ Individuals recognize that others have thoughts, feelings, and perspectives that may differ from their own -​ Emerges most dynamically in around 4 year olds -​ Cultural/social context matters -​ Fail false belief test for 8 year olds in Quechua (farming community) -​ They have a society that does not rely on vocabulary that includes talking about other’s mental states -​ They don’t need to do this to survive – they are focused on farming to live day-to-day -​ Individualistic cultural phenomenon – that it serves us to have ToM -​ Secure attachment = earlier development of ToM -​ False belief task -​ Tests for ToM -​ Ask what was inside the box -​ No ToM will believe that everyone thinks candles are inside (including Snoopy) -​ What are the mechanisms of theory of mind development? -​ Biological contributions  -​ The Brain-ToM model: maturation of specific brain areas is crucial for ToM -​ Prefrontal cortex -​ ToM deficits seen in neurodevelopmental disorders (schizophrenia, ADHD, developmental language disorders, etc.) -​ Indicator that ToM must be a fundamental part of the human experience -​ Social contributions -​ Pretend play – also helping to facilitate the PFC -​ Ability to think creatively = a genius (according to NASA) -​ But formal education and conformity leads to uncreative thinking -​ Children’s self-esteem goes down when we force them to conform Early emergence of self: Middle Childhood -​ Middle childhood -​ Gradual evolution from self-concept being defined by external attributes (physical, behavioral, etc) to more enduring inner qualities (traits, values, beliefs, ideologies, etc) -​ A developmental shift toward a more abstract “psychological” portrayal of self is commonly seen most dramatically from childhood to preadolescence -​ From 9 to 11 years old -​ More doubt, it’s about how others view you, how you are being accepted/rejected from groups Early emergence of self: Adolescence -​ Adolescence -​ Self-concept becomes more psychological, abstract, and more integrated -​ Not as interested in conforming, broader social groups, self-conflict within the individual (the person does not know who she is) -​ Indecisiveness comes from increased self awareness – from PFC development -​ fMRI research on self-valuation -​ Contrast ourselves between how we view ourselves vs. others is due to PFC  -​ PFC not fully developed – you are in a renaissance, a time of chaos in the brain – teens don’t know who they are but they are trying -​ Yet we are expected to make largest life decisions at this time? Self-Esteem: Childhood -​ Self-esteem: one’s evaluation of one’s worth as a person based on an assessment of the qualities that make up the self-concept -​ Difference between self-concept and self-esteem – you can have a good self-concept but low self-esteem -​ Self concept: internal definition of who you are -​ Self-esteem: your evaluation of the work of your self concept -​ Are the traits that I have actually valuable to others? -​ Puppet study – use puppets to talk to themselves -​ 5-year-olds asked about worthiness (eg. Do you [puppet] like to play with this child?; Is this [child] a good [bad] boy or girl?) -​ Strongly influenced by attachment style -​ Securely attached children described themselves more favorably -​ If you are told you are bad as a child, you are going to hate yourself, not your parents -​ Were rated as more competent and socially skilled by preschool teachers -​ Stable over time -​ Four to seven-year-olds: -​ Rate themselves positively in all domains -​ Why? People around us are giving a lot of positive reinforcement -​ Inflated sense of self? -​ Around 8 year olds: -​ Rate themselves based on the perceptions of others -​ There are more skill assessments at school  -​ Personal assessments of social competencies are confirmed by peers who have been asked to rate their classmates’ social competencies -​ Consistency between how we view ourselves and how our peers/teacher perceive us -​ Children use these 5 domains to determine their overall self-worth Self-Esteem: Adolescence -​ Self-esteem continues to decline during adolescence -​ Body image and other problems associated with puberty -​ The emerging capacity to think abstractly about one’s self and one’s future and therefore to acknowledge missed opportunities and failed expectations -​ The transition from grade school to the more academically challenging and socially complex context of middle/high school Developmental Trajectory of Self-Esteem -​ Estrogen drops – stop caring about how others view you – this is why we see a peak around 40-50 Lecture 4: Gender – 02/12 Traditional gender stereotypes -​ Gender typing: the process by which children acquire gender identity including motives, values, and behaviors considered appropriate (in their cultural) for members of their biological sex -​ Females are to assume an expressive role that involves being kind, nurturant, cooperative, and sensitive to the needs of others -​ Males are to adopt an instrumental role that involves the tasks of providing for the family and protecting it from harm. Boys are expected to become dominant, assertive, independent, and competitive. -​ Is it limited to Western/Industrialized cultures? No. -​ 110 non-industrialized societies: -​ UCLA Psychology Bachelor’s Program Diversity: 22% men and 78% women -​ Attribute this to the different traits men/women are expected to take on Facts about gender differences -​ Small (lots of variability), but reliable, gender stereotypes: -​ Verbal abilities -​ Visual/spatial abilities -​ Mathematical reasoning -​ Aggression -​ Activity level -​ Risk-raking -​ Developmental vulnerability -​ Emotional expressivity/sensitivity -​ Compliance  -​ Self-esteem Gender identity influences -​ Nurture -​ Home influence -​ Many parents expect their sons to outperform their daughters in math -​ Many parents attribute their sons’ successes in math to ability but credit their daughters’ successes to hard work -​ Many children begin to internalize their parents’ views, so that boys feel relatively self confident, whereas girls are somewhat more inclines to underestimate their general academic abilities (particuarly math) -​ Suspecting that they lack ability, many girls become less interested in math, value it less, are less likely to take elective math courses, and become less inclined than boys to pursue career possibilities that involve math after high school -​ Teachers tend to reinforce these beliefs Fiction about gender differences -​ Females are more social than males -​ Equally interested in social stimuli, equally responsvie to social reinforcement, and equally proficient at learning from social models -​ Females are more suggestible than males -​ No sex diffwerences in child conformity – some suggest boys are more likely than girls to accept peer-group values that conflict with their own -​ Males are more analytic than females -​ No sex differences in probability learning or concept learning -​ Females are lower in achievement motivation than males -​ No sex difference Gender Identity Development -​ To newborns, adult females spoke an average of 1263 words per hour on recordings compared to 462 words per hour for male adults -​ Female caregivers respond more to baby girl than baby boy vocalizations at birth and at one month old -​ Male caregivers of toddlers tended to be more responsive to females than males and they spoke more openly to females about emotions -​ Between ages 2 and 3, children begin to tell us what they know about gender as they acquire and correctly use such labels as “mommy” and “daddy” and (slightly later) “boy” and “girl” -​ Ages 3-6: -​ Gender stereotyping of interests, activities, and occupations emerge and become quite rigid  -​ Age 5-7: sensitive period for gender stereotyping -​ These children need representation – it’s not enough to just tell them -​ Early adolescence: -​ Gender identity becomes more salient -​ Gender-typed behaviors increase -​ Intolerance for cross-sex mannerisms -​ Late adolescence: -​ Gender stereotyping becomes more flexible -​ Gender segregation becomes less pronounced Development of Gender Concept -​ By 6 months of age, infants are using differences in vocal pitch to discriminate female speech from that of males -​ By the end of the first year, infants can reliably discriminate photographs of men and women (woman are long-haired ones) and are beginning to match male and female voices Development of Gender-Role Stereotypes/Behavior -​ Before age 2: -​ Gender typed toy/activity preferences emerge -​ Preferences for same-sex playmates self emerge (gender segregation) Gender identity influences -​ Nature (DNA) -​ Nurture impacts the epigenome – genetic component to gender stereotypes -​ The David Reimer case -​ Penis fell off during circumcision -​ Parents opted for sexual reassignment surgery -​ Brenda did not know she was once a boy – but actively protested feminine things – gender must be genetic