Psych Test #1.pdf

Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology Structuralism: Led by Wundt and Titchener Functionalism: Led by William James, influenced by Darwin immediate experience & identifying basic elements Asked himself what are the basic building blocks & of sensation and feeli...

Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology Structuralism: Led by Wundt and Titchener Functionalism: Led by William James, influenced by Darwin immediate experience & identifying basic elements Asked himself what are the basic building blocks & of sensation and feelings functions? Method: introspection (e.g. observing one's reaction Identify states of mine & functions they perform for to lights, sounds, colours) humans 5 major perspectives in psychology: 1. Neuroscience Perspective a. Ex: how humans function biologically, neurons and neuronal communication, genetics and epigenetics, body-mind-brain connections and physiological changes from trauma b. Behavioural neuroscience: How our brain/nervous system shape behaviour 2. Psychodynamic Perspective: Led by Freud, Austrian physician a. Behaviour is the result of powerful unconscious (no evidence of it) forces and conflicts b. Emphasised how early childhood experiences, shape adult selves c. Introduced form of psychological intervention as treatment 3. Behavioural Perspective (most dominant perspective in psych): Led by John Watson and Skinner a. study of ONLY observable behaviour therefore no study of higher processes b. Asserts that all human actions are shaped by external stimuli, aiming to predict and control behaviour 4. Cognitive Perspective a. Evolved out of structuralism and in reaction to behaviourism. b. Emphasised the unique/crucial role of how we think, understand, and process info c. 1950/1960’s cognitive revolution: psychologists found rigorous ways to student mental process d. Study thinking, memory, reasoning, problem solving & decision making, language. 5. Humanistic Perspective: Led by Maslow and Rogers a. Optimistic view emphasizes free will, and potential for personal growth. b. Studied experiences like love, grief, caring. c. Seen in clinical psych, positive psychology grew out of this later Founding women in psychology 1. Washburn: 1st women to get PhD in psychology for her work on animal cognition 2. Calkins: 1st female president of APA, studied memory 3. Harney: studied special & cultural factors behind personality. Famously pushes back on Freud’s sexist ideas 4. Phipps Clark: pioneering work on racial differences led to Supreme Court decision to desegregate USA school 5. Hallingworth: studied gifted children, argued environments played big role in intelligence Scientific skepticism: Open mind to all claims & accept claims that were tested Do not accept claims based only on authority & open to new evidence Pseudoscience: claims that appear scientific or legit but aren't. Warning signs are as follows: Exaggerated claims Overreliance on anecdotes: “I know a person who..” Absence of connectivity to other research: contradicts existing research Absence of peer review & relocation: no external, objective evaluation from experts Lack of self-correction: proponents stubbornly refuse to change views Use of psychobabble or jargon: uses “sciency” words designed to portray authority Talk of “proof” instead of evidence: science doesn't speak to prove things, just of associations/strong evidence Principles of scientific thinking: 1. Ruling out rival hypotheses: a. Are they presenting only an explanation for behaviour? We know most behaviours are multiply determined b. What are other potential explanations for a given behaviour? Why aren't these being presented/tested? 2. Correlation vs causation: Two variables can be correlated, but cannot say for sure that one CAUSES other a. E.g. ice cream consumption (X) and crime consumption (Y)  i. X might cause Y: all that sugar leads to crime ii. Y might cause X: ice cream to celebrate stolen merch? iii. Z might cause X and Y: hot temps make u want ice cream & more frustrated & prone to criminality 3. Falsifiability: A good theory or claim must be falsifiable: able to be disproven. a. If there is no way to prove it false, it is not a valid theory or claim. b. Researchers must state a priori (in advance of doing research) - evidence supporting theory & refute it 4. Replicability: findings of a study must be repeated successfully if we want to have confidence in them. a. studies that don’t yield predicted results are rarely published (file drawer effect) b. No incentives for research to replicate 5. Extraordinary claims: The bigger the claim, the bigger the evidence needs to be 6. Occam’s razor/parsimony: The simplest explanation is usually the best one Steps in the research process/scientific method: 1. Identifying questions of interest stemming from: a. Behaviour and phenomenon requiring explanation, b. prior research findings, c. curiosity, creativity, insight 2. Formulate an explanation a. Specify a theory (plausible explanations for existing and true facts) i. E.g. why people divorce, why people don’t help b. Develop hypothesis (prediction stated in a way that allows it to be tested. Derived from theories) i. E.g. the less people live together before marriage, the more likely they are to get divorced. 3. Carry out research a. Operationalize hypothesis (making it specific, testable procedure that can be measured and observed) b. Select research method, b. collect data, c. analyze data 4. Communicate findings Descriptive research methods (used when variable cannot be manipulated) 1. Naturalistic observation: Observing behaviour in a natural setting without intervening. a. PRO: High external validity: the findings generalize to the real world. b. CON: Low internal validity: no ability to draw cause-and-effect inferences 2. Case studies: In-depth study of individuals/groups w/h rare forms of brain damage or mental illness. a. PROS: Incredible amount of detail! b. CONS: Lacks generalizability & highly subjective, very time consuming. 3. Surveys/questionnaires: Gathers self-reported data quick and easily a. PROS: inexpensive, easy to administer, collect huge amounts of data very quickly, direct access. b. CONS: self-report bias and impression management, varied interpretation of the questions. c. Correlations (r), examines extent to which two or more variables are associated, (doesn't imply causation) range from -1 to +1 i. Positive: as one variable increases, so does the other ii. Negative: as one variable increases, the other decreases iii. Zero: no systematic relationship between the variables Experimental Research: Only method to determine causality (Does X cause Y?) by manipulating one variable and observing outcome Manipulate independent variable (IV): “Cause” Measure effect on dependent variable (DV): “Effect” Given random assignment –> participants have equal chance of being assigned to either group, avoid confounds/extraneous variables influence outcomes Experimental & Control Groups: Experimental group: participants who receive the treatment or manipulation of IV. Control group: participants who do not receive the treatment or manipulation of IV. (baseline for comp) Descriptive statistics: organizing and summarizing data Mean: The average of a data set. Median: The middle value when data is ordered. Mode: The most frequent value in a data set. Chapter 2: Neuroscience + Behaviour Neuronal components axons, dendrites, myelination, synapses, synaptic vesicles, etc.) 1. Glial cells: Support neurons by holding them in place, transporting nutrients and waste, mediating immune responses & insulate axons through myelin sheaths to speed up electrical impulses 2. Neurons: specialized nerve cells that send messages to other neurons, receive messages & produce NT a. Soma/cell body: produces proteins and NT’s b. Dendrite: receive info from other neurons c. Axons: “tails” of neuron that transmit info, away from soma, to other neurons d. Axon terminal: end of axon, w/h synaptic vesicles e. Synaptic Vesicles: have chemical messengers, neurotransmitters (NT) i. Produced by soma, travel down axon until they burst & release NT into synaptic cleft 3. Synapse: structures that allow a neuron to pass an electrical/chemical signal to another neuron a. Synaptic cleft: tiny space btw neurons where NT exchanged b. Presynaptic: located on axon, sends signal c. Postsynaptic: located on dendrites/soma, receives signal Neuronal transmission Resting Potential (RP): when there’s no NT acting on neuron ○ Neuron gets poked causing RP (-70 mv) and Na pumped into cell ○ If threshold potential occurs (-50mv), an action potential occurs due to stimulated neuron Action Potential (AP): electrical impulses travel down axon term, triggering NT releasing ○ Cell membrane opens briefly, Na (depolarize) & K channels open (repolarize) (40mv) Absolute Refractory Period: neuron cannot fire immediately after AP Relative Refractory Period: neuron can fire, but needs stronger stimulus (compared w/h the neuron at rp) Neurotransmitters: carry messages across synapse to dendrite of receiver neuron ○ NT travel across synapse to receptor sites on other neurons dendrite (after AP reached). When a neuron fits into a site it delivers an excitatory or inhibitory message. wExcitatory: a chemical message that makes it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire Inhibitory: a chemical message that prevents or decreases the likelihood of a neuron firing ○ TYPES: Acetylcholine: involved in our every move, bc it transmits messages relating to our skeletal muscles. Glutamate: role in memory, memories produced by biochemical changes at particular synapses GABA: nervous system’s primary inhibitory NT, moderates behaviours ranging from eating-aggression Dopamine: Neurons that use NT dopamine to communicate w/h each other form dopamine pathways Serotonin: associated with regulation of sleep, eating, mood & pain Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs): drugs designed to enter the synapse & block the reuptake, leaving it with no place to go but receptor sites, thus increasing activity in neurons Endorphins: produced by the brain, body’s natural painkiller Opiates: class of drugs that relieve pain, cause euphoria similar to endogenous endorphins Methods to measure brain activity EEG: computer produced EEG image fMRI scan: magnetic field to provide a detailed view of brain activity on a moment-moment basis TMS apparatus: temporarily disrupts brain activity to study specific region PET scan: displays the functioning of the brain at a given moment w/h injection of chemical The Forebrain: The Subcortical Structures/Limbic: 1. Thalamus: located in the middle of the central core, relays sensory information 2. Hypothalamus: located below thalamus, maintains homeostasis, produces and regulates vital behaviour 3. Limbic system: part of the brain that controls eating, aggression, reproduction a. Includes amygdala (emotion, mainly fear) and the hippocampus (memory) The Cerebral Cortex: Our “New Brain” Responsible for most sophisticated info processing. Composed of cerebral cortex/the subcortical regions 1. Frontal lobe: executive functions, motor control (via motor cortex), decision making a. Damage: motor deficits, impulsivity  2. Parietal lobe: somatosensory cortex (touch, pain + temp), located behind frontal a. Damage: issue w/h spatial awareness and sensory integration 3. Temporal lobe: auditory cortex, language & memory. located near the temples a. Damage: difficulty w/h language comprehension, memory issues 4. Occipital lobe: visual cortex/processing centre, located at the back of brain. Interprets visual stimuli a. Damage: visual hallucinations, blindness Hemisphere: two symmetrical halves of the brain that control the side of the body opposite of their location Lateralization: dominance of one hemisphere of the brain in specific functions Cerebrum: Most developed area of the brain, response for learning, memory, thinking, consciousness Made up of two cerebral hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum ○ Left hemisphere: more concentrated on tasks that require verbal abilities, thinking/reasoning ○ Right hemisphere: more adept at nonverbal tasks (recognition of patterns/drawings/music, & expressions) Central nervous system: Composed of the brain and the spinal cord Spinal cord is a bundle of neurons + primary means of communication btw the brain and rest of body Peripheral nervous system: Made up of long axons and dendrites, contains all parts of the nervous system other than the brain & spinal cord. Divided into sensory and motor then motor divided into: Somatic nervous system: controls all voluntary control of movements Autonomic nervous system: controls involuntary movements of the body ○ Sympathetic: prepares the body to deal with stressful situations (fight vs flight) ○ Parasympathetic: acts to calm the body Reflexes: An automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus. There are 3 types of neurons involved in reflexes: Sensory (afferent) neurons: bring info from the sensory receptors of the skin and organs to the CNS Motor (efferent) neurons: carry info away from the CNS to the muscles and glands of the body Interneurons: connect sensory/motor neurons, carrying messages btw the two Split brain surgery: Severed corpus callosum (main bundle of neuronal fibres), exchange of info isn't as efficient after NOTE: eyes deliver info to both hemispheres, but stimuli in right half of visual field registered by left side of each eye, sending signals to left hemisphere EFFECTS: left hemisphere is dominant for verbal processing, the patient's answer matches word when it is flashed on the right field of view. Right hemisphere can't share info with left so patient is unable to say but can draw it Neuroplasticity: the brain continually reorganizes itself through the establishment of new connections Neurogenesis: creation of new neurons in certain parts of the brain Synaptogenesis: creation of web of synaptic connections between neurons creating new circuits Hormones: chemical messengers in bloodstream Pituitary: master glands Pulsatile release by endocrine glands Hypothalamus: controls release of hormones in pituitary Negative feedback system gland + H20 balance, sleep, temp, appetite and BP Differ from NT as they’re transferred through blood Thyroid: regulates metabolism vessels Adrenal: regulates BP, metabolism Chapter 3: Sensation & Perception Sensation: sensory organs receive & represent stimulus energies Bottom-up processing → Tries to organize sensory data (stimuli) into something meaningful. Data driven, requires no previous knowledge, experience/learning Perception: brain organizes & interprets sensory info, recognizing meaningful objects/events Top-down processing → Driven by previous experiences, knowledge, expectations as opposed to data ○ Recognize the whole first then the component parts ○ Quick and useful but prone to errors Transduction Sense receptors: specialized cells in the nervous system that convert stimuli into electrical signals (nerve impulses Psychophysics (Fechner) Study of how physical stimuli are translated into psychological experience Absolute threshold: lowest level of a stimuli that can be detected 50% of the time, hold when no other noise present Just noticeable difference: smallest change in the intensity of a stimulus we can detect ○ Stronger the stimuli, bigger the change in intensity needed (weber's law) Signal detection theory: When conditions are less than ideal (background noise) Signal-to-noise ratio: harder to detect a signal clearly as background noise increases Sensory adaptation An adjustment in sensitivity after prolonged exposure to unchanging stimuli that we become accustomed to ⬇ in sensitivity to stimuli = inability of sensory nerve receptors to fire off messages to brain indefinitely Receptor cells are most responsive to changes in stimulation Visual Perception: Vision: starts w/h light, the physical energy that stimulates the eye Light: form of electromagnetic radiation waves Visual spectrum: corresponds to wavelengths humans are sensitive to, relatively small Parts of the eye & function Cornea: transparent ‘window’ that bends the light to focus the image on the back of eye as it enters eye Lens: changes curvature to fine-tune the visual image, focuses light rays; process known as accommodation, Iris: coloured ring of muscle surrounding the pupil; controls how much light enters eye Pupil: opening in centre of iris that helps regulate how much light passes into retina Retina: neural tissue lining back of surface of the eye; absorbs light, processes image, & sends info to the brain Fovea: central part of retina, responsible for visual acuity Light hits two types of sense receptors on the retina; rods and cones ○ Rods: long and narrow, sensitive to bright light, responsible for night and peripheral ○ Cones: shaped like small cones, responsible for daylight & colour vision/acuity Brightness: amount of light emitted from/reflected by object Hue: colour names and related to wavelengths of light (pink-violet) Saturation: purity of colour; related to complexity of light waves (hot pink vs pastel pink) Trichromatic theory of colour blindness: 3 kinds of cones in the retina. Perception of colour is influenced by relative strength w/h each of 3 cones is activated. Short (violet-blue) cone Medium (green) cone Long (yellow-red) cone If one of the cone systems malfunctions, colours covered by that range are perceived improperly Opponent Process Theory of Colour Vision: Receptor cells linked in pairs, working opposite blue-yellow pairing → s + m + l cone red-green pairing → m + l cone black-white pairing → s + m + l cone Perceptual constancy: Physical objects are perceived as something despite changes in appearance/environment Gestalt principles/Laws of Organization: determine how we organize info into meaningful wholes Figure-ground: one object (figure) seems to stand out from background (ground) Similarity: objects w/h similar characteristics are perceived as units Proximity: objects that are close together are perceived as units Continuity: objects that appear to form a pattern are perceived as units Closure: figures w/h missing parts are perceived as whole figures Chapter 4: Why sleep is important Evolution: conservation of energy and protection from nighttime predator during evening when food was hard to come by Restoration: sleep restored and replenished our brains and bodies (reduced brain activity during non-REM sleep may give neurons a chance to repair themselves Memory: sleep plays a crucial role in memory, consolidation, learning Development: sleep is essential to brain development and physical growth of children The stages of sleep (non-rem) Hypnagogic state (pre-sleep consciousness): state when people are falling asleep, experience hypnagogic image & muscle spasms Stage N1: stage of transition btw wakefulness & sleep, characterized by relatively rapid, low-voltage brain waves Stage N2: slower, regular wave pattern & momentary interruptions of sharp waves (sleep spindles) Stage N3: brain waves become slower w/h an appearance of higher peaks and lower valleys in wave pattern Stage N4: deepest stage of sleep where people are least responsive to outside stimuli and wave pattern are slower and more regular Chronotype: variability btw people with regards to how much they sorrp and how much they need REM (rapid eye movement): REM accounts for about 25% of an adult's sleeping time, often referred to as paradoxical sleep. Characterized by: Paralysis of the body but increased/irregular HR, increase in BP & breathing rate, erection in males & rapid eye movement Most dreaming occurs in REM REM plays vital role in learning/memory Each time we go through non-rem we spend more time in REM (similar pattern to being awake but feel paralyzed bc only thing that moves are our eyes) REM decreases as we age REM rebound: when deprived of REM and are allowed to sleep they go into deep REM and have vivid dreams Sleep Deprivation: Can lead to weariness, irritability, lack of emotion, lack of concentration, decline in logical reasoning and creativity AND weariness & lower performance in mental/physical tasks can be dangerous when doing things like driving or in certain professions Major sleep disorders Insomnia: difficulty in sleeping (falling/staying asleep) ○ Due to stress situations or no obvious cause Sleep apnea: difficulty breathing while sleeping resulting in disturbances, exhaustion ○ Could be underlying health issues Night terrors: sudden awakenings from non-REM sleep that inc extreme fear, panic, strong physiological arousal ○ Occur mostly in children btw 3-8. NIghtmares occur during REM Narcolepsy: uncontrollable sleeping that occurs for short periods while awake. Go directly through REM sleep ○ Causes may be a genetic component, often treated w/h medication Sleepwalking/talking: vague consciousness world around them ○ Causes are multifaceted, exacerbated by stress, sleep deprivation ○ More common in children may be associated with sleep tremors Sleep paralysis: inability to speak/perform any voluntary muscle movement during sleep ○ Often occurs during hypnagogic state ○ Cause unknown but associated with narcolepsy part & anxiety disorders generally  Theories of why we dream or what dreams represent Wish Fulfilment theory (freud) ○ Viewed dreams as a guide to the unconscious, rep unconscious wishes of dreamers. Wishes are threatening to the dreams conscious awareness. The actual wishes - called latent content of dreams - are disguised in symbolic way ○ True meaning of dreams have little to do w/h storyline, called the manifest content of dreams Dreams for survival theory: ○ Dreams permit info that is crucial to survival to be considered reconsidered/reprocessed during sleep. Dreams rep concerns about our lives, illustrating our uncertainties, indecisions, ideas and desires. ○ Research suggests that certain dreams permit people to focus on & consolidate memories ○ Particularly dreams that pertain to “how to do it” memories ad motor skills Activation-synthesis theory (Hosbon) ○ The brain produces random electrical energy during REM that stim memories in parts of the brain, put together to make a story. Hosbon doesn’t reject Freud view (dreams reflect unconscious wishes_ ○ Argues the scenario a dreamer produces is not random, but a clue to dreams, emotions & concerns Addiction: any behaviour that is out of control in some way. Addiction is also used to explain the experience of withdrawal when a substance or behaviour is stopped. One way of describing addiction is the presence of the 4 C’s: Craving Compulsion to use Loss of control (amount/frequency of use) Use despite consequences Dependance is exhibited by physical symptoms, while addiction manifests as a combination of physical, mental & behavioural symptoms A person whos addicted is also dependant BUT a person whose dependent may not be addicted Physical dependance is usually precursor to addiction Psychoactive drugs & effects Type Description Effects Stimulants Drugs that increase CNS activity. Stimulants ⬇ doses: feelings of excitement, alertness, increased disrupt the normal comm w/h brain neurons. energy/BP/HR, talkativeness Rapidly absorb into body ⬆ doses: restlessness, irritability, insomnia, ↓ appetite, Dopamine decrease as stim decrease paranoia, aggressiveness, panic, reduced sex drive Depressants Drugs that decrease CNS activity Small doses: intoxication, drunkenness, disinhibition, Most act on brain by inc GABA reduced anxiety. Mixing depressants = inc risk of overdose Large Doses: sleepiness, impaired motor functioning, slower reaction time, slurred speech. Opioids natural and synthetic substances that increase Other effects: impaired coordination & mental functioning, (narcotics) relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety. nausea, respiratory arrest & death. Heroin: produces brief, intense high. Desire to repeat the experience = high tol Oxycodone: most addictive/destructive Cannabis hallucinogen, stimulant & depressant. 2 main Long-term, heavy use can cause "spaced-out" feeling, active ingredients: THC & CBD. impaired memory, attention, executive functioning, and Intense sensory experiences and reduced testosterone production. increased self-importance. Can exacerbate existing mental health issues or trigger psychotic episodes. Hallucinogens Natural or synthetic substances that alter sensory Effects include increased sensory awareness, euphoria, perceptions. altered experiences, time distortions, and greater insight. Alters brain-cell activity and perception, with low Other effects include dilated pupils, nausea, mood swings, risk of tolerance or addiction. and jumbled thoughts. Dr. Lembke podcast on addiction. Pleasure-Pain: ○ The brain maintains an equilibrium between pleasure and pain, similar to a seesaw. ○ Following a pleasurable experience, the brain offsets it by leaning towards pain, resulting in a "crash" or desire for more pleasure. ○ Prolonged exposure to enjoyable activities results in heightened pain responses after pleasure, reinforcing addictive behaviours Addiction ○ Addiction causes changes in the brain, resetting the threshold for experiencing pleasure and pain, making the individual feel more pain and less pleasure without the addictive substance or behaviour. ○ This leads to using the substance not for enjoyment, but to feel normal, as the brain is in a state of dopamine deficiency. Abstinence + recovery ○ Dr. Lembke suggests a period of complete abstinence (approximately four weeks) from the addictive substance or behaviour to restore the brain's equilibrium. ○ During this time, withdrawal symptoms like anxiety, irritability, and insomnia occur but eventually diminish as the brain recuperates. Behavioural addictions (such as food, gambling, or social media) elicit similar brain responses as substance addictions. Dr. Lembke emphasizes that excessive exposure to dopamine-inducing behaviours in modern life, such as constant social media use, contributes to the increasing prevalence of addiction issues. ○ The human brain evolved to seek pleasure in a world of scarcity, but modern life, with constant access to pleasure, presents new challenges, leading to excessive consumption and addiction.