PSYCH study note final.docx

Language Development Study Questions What features define a true language (as distinct from more general communications)? Communication - Representation - A complex system of: Arbitrary symbols that have meaning (semantics) Organized by rules (Syntax) Expresses abstract Ideas Creative, Generative...

Language Development Study Questions What features define a true language (as distinct from more general communications)? Communication - Representation - A complex system of: Arbitrary symbols that have meaning (semantics) Organized by rules (Syntax) Expresses abstract Ideas Creative, Generative Dynamic What are the key functions of language? Information Exchange Learning Cultural Categories Values Practices Tracking complex social relationships (gossip) What evidence is there that language is learned? Behaviorists say: Learning through environment We mimic pronunciation, idioms, simplified, exaggerates emphasis, higher pitch Language is reinforced What evidence is there that the capacity for language in innate? Broca’s & Wernicke’s areas (brain regions exist specifically for language) Children learn in a universal sequence (birth-7yrs) It emerges too quickly to be dependant on learning (modeling and reinforcement are insufficient) Grammar and syntax are unique to humans Correct sequences are not selectively & consistently rienforced Language inputs are frequently limited, degraded, ambiguous Children product novel utturances (saying things you’ve never heard) Language is created when “two or three are gathered” Briefly explain the interactionist hypothesis of language development. Be able to identify and define the five components of language. Phonology (phonemes) The set of sounds used in a particular language (English) Morphology (morphemes) Meaningful combinations of phonemes (house, s, ing) Semantics (meaningful units) Usually words, sometimes phrases Syntax (e.g., Garfields Odie bit. Vs. Odie bit Garfield) Rules guiding how words are combined to convey meaning Pragmatics (sociolinguistic knowledge) Rules of conversations (turn-taking, when (not) to interrupt, clarity vs ambiguity, etc.) Nonverbal signals (facial expressions, gestures) are also interpreted and used. Across all languages (including sign languages), there is a universal sequence of acquisition/development. Briefly describe that universal sequence. Prelingual (producing sounds) Producing sounds Coos -2 months Babbles by 5-6 months Babbles including intonations -7 months What prelingual infants understand about language and communication: Turn Taking – 7-8 months 1st rule in the pragmatics of language Preverbal gestures -8-10 months Common preverbal gestures Declarative gestures Imperative Gestures Language comprehension is poor but not non-existent before -12 months Infants are actively processing linguistic inputs, learning about the language of their environment, and filling in their LAD (Language acquisition device) database After -12 months, language comprehension builds and develops more quickly than speaking ability Receptive language (comprehension) development occurs before Productive Language (expression) Holophrastic (1 word at a time) Babies utter single words Sounds that begin with consonants and end with vowels are more easily pronounced by infants Growing Vocabulary Naming explosion (doggy) Fast Mapping – the ability to quickly acquire and retain a word after hearing it applied to its referent a couple of times, is guided by children’s adherence to simple rules Common Errors Over extension Use a word to refer to a broader set of objects, actions or events than adults do E.G. “doggie” refers to all 4 legged animals Under extension use general words to refer to a smaller set of objects, actions or events than adults do (e.g. using cookie to only refer to chocolate cookies) Telegraphic (from holophrases to simple sentences) Beginning to combine words into sentences 18 months -24 months E.g “daddy up” E.g. “Amy eat” Acquire language skills By 2 years the typical toddler can pronounce - 200 words Expanding Vocabulary Asking questions while reading improves comprehension Grammatical morphemes Prefixes, suffixes, prepositions and auxillary verbs that modify the meaning of words and sentences (begin to use – 2 years of age) Common Errors Overregularization (children extending regular grammatical patterns to irregular words) E.g. 2 Mans , 2 feets E.g. “goed” instead of went “tooths” instead of teeth What evidence is there that prelingual children are actively learning and processing language? How do children learn new words (figure out what they mean)? What rules do they apply to accomplish this task? What kinds of errors are features of children in the holophrastic phase of language development? In the telegraphic phase? Holophrastic errors: Underextension Overextension Telegraphic errors: Overregulization How can more knowledgeable others support language development at each stage? Turn-taking Infants respond positively to verbal/signed turn-taking Parents model turn-taking Children spontaneously engage, in turn-taking as they move into early telegraphic speech (-2years), and quickly expect conversation partners to do this (-3years). What are the costs and benefits (mostly benefits) of having children learn multiple languages? What are the limits of this learning (e.g. timing issues)? Costs Initially slows acquisition of each language and limits vocabulary But children catch up and acquire each at a similar rate to monolingual peers Benefits Multilingual children show cognitive benefits over monolinguals Improved ability to inhibit competing responses Greater executive control (attention, working memory, task-switching) Sociocultural benefits Languages are expressions of and connections to culture Provides meaning, identity, and supports mental health & resilience Timing Early exposure to other languages is important for retaining the ability to distinguish meaningful phonemic distinctions But learning a second language can effectively begin later Prior to puberty children pick up syntax and correct pronunciation easily After puberty, vocabulary learning is swift but syntax and pronunciation much more difficult Deaf/Hearing impaired children learn sign more easily than speech Sign should come first What are the pros and cons of giving children with hearing impairments cochlear implants? How might having (or not having) a cochlear implant affect language development? Pros: Access to the majority of speaking/hearing world Conversation, tv, telephone, music, etc Supports effective speech development. Cons: Reduces availability to sign language Requires access to medical resources Does not provide “normal” sound inputs Involves significant rehabilitation & training Implant can damage residual hearing abilities Limits activities Requires batteries Does not work equally for everyone (&hard to predict this) Some argue that cochlear implants result in cultural genocide Most deaf people advocate for good access to both sign and speech Sign for rich early linguistic input and to support times when implant is not available Implant to facilitate access to broader social, educational, and professional worlds But important to support deaf institutions & organizations as implants are not a cure Emotional and Self-Concept Development Study Questions Emotional Development (chapter 10) For chapter 10, the best way to check your learning is to look at the learning objectives listed at the start of each module (which are framed as questions), and respond to the questions at the end of each module (Check Your Learning). Here are few other questions you can use to guide your study of this chapter. What are emotions for? That is, what are their functions? When are the six basic emotions evident in children? When are more complex emotions evident? 6 Basic Emotions evident in children: Happiness Anger Surprise Fear Disgust Sadness 3 Complex Emotions Evident at (___) Years?months?: Guilt Embarrassment Pride (To answer this you also need to draw on module 11.1) Why do children need to be older before they can experience complex emotions such as guilt, pride, embarrassment, shame, grief, or compassion? Because they have developed a sense of self Why did developmental psychologists move away from using Chess and Thomas’ three basic patterns of temperament to describe differences among children? Because 3 basic patterns of temperament Sugency/extraversion Positive mood, activity, expressive, likes stimulation Negative affect Negative emotions, difficulty being comforted Effortful control Focused attention, not easily distracted, behavioral inhibition Chess and Thomas identified nine dimensions of temperament, each of which is on a continuum. What is the advantage of describing a child’s temperament in terms of these nine dimensions? 9 dimensions of temperament Activity Biological rhythms Sensitivity Intensity of reaction Adaptability Approach/withdrawal Persistence Distractibility Mood (emotional tone) Advantages: What is the concept of “goodness of fit” when it comes to a child’s temperament? Why is this important to the child’s development? In what ways are emotions and their expression similar across cultures? In what ways are they different? What is Tronick’s “Still Face” experiment and what does it tell us about emotions in infants? What are the two major systems that govern and help us regulate our emotions? How does each system affect what we feel and how we act on those feelings? Behavioral activation: Responds to reward and positive stimuli, involved in approach behaviors, associated with positive emotions (excitement, happiness, hope) Behavioral inhibition: Responds to punishment and to unfamiliarity, inhibits behaviors, motivates avoidance & withdrawal, associated with negative emotions (anxiety, fear, sadness, frustration) Children vary in their overall tendency towards activation/inhibition (temperament): all have both; environment can modify. (To answer this you also need to draw on module 12.3). What are the two dimensions of empathy? Does empathy emerge spontaneously? Can empathy be taught, and if so, how? Empathy: The ability to experience the same emotions that someone else is experiencing Early signs of Empathy demonstrated – 2 years Toddlers are able to begin talking about emotions at 18-24 months Conversations about emotions are beneficial Become more skilled in preschool years and beyond Caregivers can help by labelling how others are feeling Empathy can be (must be) taught: Roots of Empathy What evidence is there that attachment is about more than bonding with the person who feeds you? John Bowlby First to view attachment as central to healthy development, beyond mere food access The first important relationship a baby develops is with parent/primary caregiver Reciprocal relationship Attachment is a close emotional relationship between two persons, characterized by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity Harlow’s study with rhesus infant monkeys What does having a secure attachment figure or figures enable a child to do? The attenchment (for healthy/secure attachment) figure is a secure base for exploration When examining the nature of a child’s attachment to a caregiver, what are the most informative steps in the Strange Situation? Why? Secure Child is confident in the caregiver’s availability and responsiveness. Welcomes contact and uses this attachment figure as a secure base from which to explore. Can be any reliable caregiver Secure attachment leads to confidence in others we are close to / belief that others can be trusted More likely to develop when caregivers respond Sensitively, promptly, predictably, and appropriately to the child. Erikson’s trust vs mistrust stage of development 3 types of insecure attachment Resistant (15-20%) Avoidant (10-15%) Disorganized (<5%) Do children who receive regular childcare from people other than their parents (e.g. daycare, day homes, nannies) have less secure attachments with their parents? What do we know about this relationship? No! Parenting style, interaction with child’s temperament, not amount of time spent together, influences attachment. Unresponsive parenting + poor quality childcare can negatively affect attchment Self-Concept (module 11.1) Again, use the learning objectives and check your learning questions to guide your study of this module. Additional questions below: What are some of the factors that contribute to a child learning that they are a “self in the world” (instead of being the world)? Adolescent egocentrism makes them think: The imaginary audience Everyone is watching and judging The personal fable I am alone in my experience Illusion of invulnerability Bad things wont happen to me (I can take risks without consequences) Risk-taking is an important way to learn limits, consequences, and to develop judgement Risk management take experience as well as maturity What are the qualitative changes in self-concept that we observe from young children to adolescents? Describe the characteristics of adolescents who are in Erikson’s “identity vs role confusion” stage of development. The crisis/conflict of adolescence identity vs role confusion The goal is to emerge from adolescence with a unique sence of identity & to find a community/society where they can belong, contribute, and make meaningful relationships The virtue to develop: fidelity The ability to make personal commitments to things, to pursuits or people How does James Marcia describe the phases of identity formation in adolescence? Various identities can develop and mature at different times in the same individual. Early in the process: Identity diffusion overwhelmed by options, not actively exploring Foreclosure fits into status/roles preselected for them Later in the process: Moratorium considering options, trying on identities Achievement settled into an identity or identities that provide direction and role Moral and Spiritual Development Study Questions Based on chapter 12, lectures, and the “Origins of Human Aggression” video For chapter 12, the best way to check your learning is to look at the learning objectives listed at the start of each module (which are framed as questions), and respond to the questions at the end of each module (Check Your Learning). Here are few other questions you can use to guide your study of this chapter. Note that some answers will overlap. Be able to describe and identify Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, as well as apply them (e.g. as in the last extension exercise). Level/Stage Description Preconventional Moral judgements are based on tangible punitive or rewarding consequences of an act, rather than on the relationship of the act to society’s rules and customs Stage 1 Obedience Orientation (Obey Authority) Stage 2 Instrumental Orientation (it will get you something you want) Conventional Moral judgements are based on a desire to gain approval or to uphold laws that maintain social order Stage 3 Interpersonal norms (live up to expectations, don’t disappoint) Stage 4 Social System morality (keeps society stable) Postconventional Moral Judgements are based on social contracts and democratic law or on university principles of ethics and justice Stage 5 Social contract orientation (laws are good but sometimes wrong) Stage 6 Universal ethical principles (e.g. Rosa Parks) *Most adults settle in the Conventional stage. a. Research tests of Kohlberg: - Conventional morality typically begins in adolescence and is the dominant form of moral reasoning expressed during adulthood - Fewer adults ever move into postconventional morality - most adults end in stage 3 or 4 What are some of the critiques of Kohlberg’s theory? Include Gilligan here, and the alternative she proposes. Highest stage reflects a western ideal of justice Cultural Bias Makes no sense in cultures that do not value individual rights highly enough to challenge social rules (the group is more important than the individual) Carol Gilligan: Argued that Kohlberg’s theory is biased against women. due to the fact that he only studied boys/men girls focused less on justice and more on maintaining relationships and care Gilligan’s Theory of Morality as Caring: She argued that girls are less likely than boys to reason morally in abstract manner: that girls are more likely to focus on care (helping people in need), while boys are more likely to focus on justice (treating people fairly). No evidence that girls score differently or lower on Kohlberg’s scale than boys Both reason morally using concerns about both justice and caring However Gilligan was correct that Kohlberg’s theory has no room for a morality based on care Does moral reasoning predict moral behavior? It depends! What young children say is/is not moral does not predict what they actually do. An individual’s stage of moral reasoning predicts their moral behavior Those employing preconventional moral reasoning are easily discouraged from moral acts (through social pressure, norms) Those who employ post-conventional moral reasoning are more likely to act in a morally principled manner When given the opportunity to cheat, university students: Preconventional – 70% cheated Conventional -55% cheated Postconventional – 15% cheated When does aggressive behavior begin? Why do children act aggressively? Why do children stop acting aggressively? What factors influence a child’s/teens aggressive behavior (expressing or suppressing it)? How is emotional regulation involved in aggressive behavior? What is the role of the developing brain in aggression? Be able to identify (in a multiple choice or matching question) Elkind’s and Fowler’s stages of spiritual development/faith formation. 5 spiritual/religious orientaitons among grade 11 & 12 Aspiritual/irreligious Disconnected wonderers High institutional & personal (go to church & believe) Primarily personal (spiritual no religious) Meditators 87% spend time thinking about religion/spirituality Elkind’s and Fowler’s stages of spiritual development/faith formation: Religion/Religiosity Beliefs and behaviour tied to an organized religion Spiritual/Spirituality Includes religion but also non-religious spiritual experiences and practices; search for the sacred; sense of transcendence Faith An expression of every person’s struggle to find and maintain meaning Elkind’s Stages of Faith Development: Age Stage < 6 or 7 years Global: Can appreciate religious symbols and rituals but cannot understand abstract belief or the idea of permanently invisible God 8 – 12 years Concrete: Spiritual identity based on experience and practice 13 + years Personal Connection: A sense that they can relate to God one-to-one: God may listen, be a confidante Fowler’s Stages of Spiritual Development: Age Stage Infancy Infancy and undifferentiated faith (pre-stage) 3 – 7 Intuitive-projective faith (mostly focused on morality, concrete, rules) 8 – 12 Mythic-literal faith (Stories in Sunday school about how to live, moral lessons) Adolescence – early adulthood Synthetic-conventional faith (believing without critical examination, or community belief) Early adulthood Individuative-reflective faith Mid-life Conjunctive faith Adulthood Universalizing faith Some scholars argue that children have capacity to recognize complex issues even if they cannot express them clearly Young children often ask existential questions Can develop a sense of injustice, suffering, and compassion early. What are the consequences for teens of developing an active spirituality and/or being actively part of a religion? Adaptive/Positive Outcomes: Support Beliefs Sence of belonging Guidance for direction in life There is a God that cares about you and your life Coping Resilience and meaning Spirituality Connection to God Negative outcome more common among those with minority status Not very common for Christians in North-America, but would be common for Muslims in North-America PSYC 351/ EDUC 363 Fall 2023 Final Examination Information The final exam will be written in the classroom, in person. You are permitted to bring printed material with you to the exam. That means written or typed notes, and/or copies of the slides. You may not bring a copy of the textbook, nor printed sections of the textbook to the exam. I will be checking this, and will remove any material that is a direct copy or scan from the textbook. If there are things in the textbook that you want to have during the exam you will have to type or write out that material yourself. This is a good way to process the material, and can be part of your studying. There is no limit to how many pages you may bring, but I recommend you limit the amount. You will not have time to search extensively during the exam. The notes are only there to prompt your memory if you pull a complete blank on something. As noted in the course syllabus, the final exam will consist of two sections. The first is like a third midterm, testing the material we covered since the second midterm, and similar in format to the midterms. Study questions for those units are already posted on Moodle. The other part is cumulative, testing the major themes and concepts from the whole semester. This portion may be tested using any question format from multiple choice to written answer. Written answers will never be any longer than a paragraph. What are those major themes and concepts, you ask? I note them below. The four themes of development: continuity vs discontinuity, nature & nurture (maturation & learning), active vs passive child, isolated vs connected domains Influences on prenatal development Gene-environment interactions The major strategies and challenges in studying perceptual development in children The basic perceptual capacities of newborns Attention The major concepts in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development (not all the details), including strengths and limitations The major concepts in Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development (not all the details) Creativity in children: What it looks like, the characteristics of creative children, how to foster creativity. Watch recording for Dec 8 Class.