Psych of Women Notes - Final.docx

Psychology of Women Final PSYC3603A Week 7: Gender in the World of Work Glass Ceiling: The invisible institutional barriers that prevent qualified women from entering the executive levels of corporations. Sticky Floor: describes low-status jobs with little opportunity for advancement This is...

Psychology of Women Final PSYC3603A Week 7: Gender in the World of Work Glass Ceiling: The invisible institutional barriers that prevent qualified women from entering the executive levels of corporations. Sticky Floor: describes low-status jobs with little opportunity for advancement This is especially true of stereotypically female jobs, e.g., clerks, secretaries, estheticians, garment workers, and house cleaners. Women aged 25 to 29 are ahead of men in terms of educational attainment, yet women still lag behind men in terms of income and advancement. Access discrimination: Discrimination in hiring patterns Types of Leadership Styles: Transformational Leadership Involves establishing oneself as a role model by gaining the trust and confidence of followers Encourage followers to develop to their own potential and therefore contribute more capably to their organization Transactional Leadership Appeal to sub-ordinates self-interest by establishing exchange relationships Clarifies subordinate responsibilities, rewarding them for meeting objectives, and correcting them for failing to meet objectives Laissez-faire Leadership Marked by general failure to take responsibility for managing Women tend to adopt participative and transformational styles of leadership Men are more likely to enact laissez-faire and transactional styles. The Motherhood Penalty: Motherhood can have an impact on women’s labour market prospects, promotional opportunities and earnings Family-devoted mothers experienced intense hiring discrimination (with lower ratings than all other candidates) Assume women workers are difficult & more expensive because they get pregnant & have childcare responsibilities that need accommodation Motherhood penalty remains stable over time Vertical vs. Horizontal Segregation: Vertical segregation: separation into hierarchical levels that entail different levels of educational attainment, experience, and skills. Horizontal segregation: jobs that have similar educational requirements, but entail different tasks and are situated in different occupations (e.g., office clerks vs. truck drivers) “Pink collar” Occupations: administrative assistants sales clerks nurses, healthcare practitioners school teachers restaurant/servers cleaning staff Role Incongruity Demands for female gender roles and leadership roles are contradictory Inconsistency between communal qualities associated with women and agentic qualities associated with a leader I.e., people’s beliefs about ‘leaders’ are more similar to their beliefs about men than women Weekly Readings: Feminism, psychology & the gender pay gap: The gender gap is expected to persist for the next 70 years, seen all over the world in all different careers The Equal Pay Act was passed in 1963 in the USA, and it prohibited sex-based wage discrimination Canada’s pay equity legislation passed in 1977 as a part of the Canadian Human Rights Act Occupational Segregation: women’s predominance in low-paying jobs and men’s predominance in high-paying jobs The public policy of motherhood: In Sweeden, laws exist so the parents get ample time off around the birth of the child and only have to work 80% of their scheduled hours until the kid is 8 The USA is terrible for paternal leave after birth The Discrimination Approach: would make it illegal for employers to discriminate against workers on the basis of family responsibilities Case law has brought about acts such as the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) and the Americans with disabilities act (ADA), both deal with discrimination against parents and medical leave Week 8: Gender-based Violence Interpersonal Trauma: Person-perpetuated, intentional (violence) Non-interpersonal Trauma: Not person-perpetuated, accidental (natural disaster) Munchausen Syndrome By Proxy: Illness in a child which is simulated (faked) and/or produced by a parent Typically done by mothers who have experienced child abuse 74-76% of victims are sexually assaulted by someone they know; men more likely to be violated by a stranger Social Norms Theory: Individuals behave in a manner they deem consistent with a norm of behaviour Higher rates of PTSD among women/children who do not disclose sexual abuse Most common to report trauma to a friend above anyone else Trauma Bond: refers to a victim’s strong, emotional attachment to a violent, unpredictable aggressor Evolutionary psychologists argue that men are biologically wired to use violence as a strategy for exerting their proprietary control over women, especially over their reproductive capacities. Effects of Neglect on Children Behavioural, physical, and psychological consequences Short-term: Attachment difficulties Cognitive & academic difficulties Emotional & behavioural problems Physical consequences Long-term: Substance abuse PTSD Violent behaviour Low socioeconomic status Rape Myths “Attitudes and generally false beliefs about rape that are widely and persistently held, and that serve to deny and justify male sexual aggression against women.” Examples: Victim responsibility (e.g., “she asked for it”) Disbelief of rape/sexual abuse claims (e.g., “It wasn’t really rape”) Rape only happens to certain kinds of women (e.g., “only women who dress suggestively are raped”) Men reported significantly greater acceptance of rape myths than women Pornography increases the chance for men to endorse rape myths, believe women deserve to be raped, and carry out aggressive behaviour toward women Complex PTSD: Difficulty regulating emotional arousal Difficulties with attention & concentration Somatization (physical ailments) Chronic changes in character, including: Self-perceptions (identity, self-esteem) Perceptions of the perpetrator Relationships with others Changes in systems of meaning (e.g., in religious beliefs) Intimate Partner Violence: Consistently identified as one of the most common forms of violence against women, both nationally and internationally Over 50% of murdered women are killed by their partner, and risk is higher when they attempt to leave Women are more likely to get beat, choked, sexually assaulted Men are more likely to get slapped, kicked, or something thrown at them Two reasons why men kill their partners: Instrumental Reasons E.g., to cash in an insurance policy Such ‘calculating killers’ are a minority Psychological Neediness More common; and associated with personality disorders Terrified of being abandoned & express their dependency in extreme jealousy & controlling behaviours Unable to live without their partner, so when she leaves they may kill both her & themselves Learned Helplessness Theory Initially, a woman tries everything she can to stop the violence. When she learns that escape is impossible, she stays A battered woman is not punished unconditionally; she is typically punished for being independent & rewarded for being passive Battered women develop an ‘illusion of control:’ they believe that the abuse is due to something they did & that they control the abuser’s behaviour Weekly Readings: Child sexual abuse, coping responses, self-blame, posttraumatic stress disorder, and adult sexual revictimization: Examines the psychological aftermath of child sexual abuse (CSA) and the factors that contribute to the revictimization in the form of adult sexual assault (ASA) Results indicated that individuals who reported both CSA and ASA had more PTSD symptoms, were more likely to use drugs & alcohol, seek therapy, etc. Frazier’s longitudinal research shows that both behavioural and self-blame are related to greater psychological symptoms for sexual assault survivors ASA is four times more likely for those who experienced CSA found in the college student study Cyber-sexual violence and negative emotional states among women in a Canadian university: Cyber-sexual violence: a harmful sexual behaviour committed with digital technologies (e.g. online sexual harassment, cyber-stalking, non-consensual pornography) The study provides evidence that indicates that experiences of cyber-sexual violence are associated with depression, anxiety, stress, etc. A variable connected to women’s well-being following a victimization incident is the victims' experiences disclosing and reporting the incident Gender-based hate speech being most common cyber-sexual violence experience Week 9: Women & the Criminal Justice System Abused women are typically given inadequate, even harmful, treatment in Canadian correctional systems Incarcerated women are more likely to have psychological symptoms (mental illness), difficulty coping (drug abuse), involvement with CPS Sex Trade: Reasons for entering: Substance abuse, history of abuse, coercion, choice Characteristics: Low socioeconomic status, homeless, minority group member, young, 90% women Most sex workers have been assaulted in some way in their life, 40 times more likely to be murdered PTSD & Victim Management Intrusive re-experiencing of the trauma (e.g., flashbacks, nightmares) Avoidance behaviours (e.g., avoidance of reminders, substance use) Difficulties with attention & concentration Somatization (physical ailments) Chronic changes in character Changes in systems of meaning (e.g., in religious beliefs) Traumatic Effects Associated with Investigation & Court Proceedings: Sense of powerlessness: loss of control Self-blame/shame: questioning by police/attorneys Re-traumatization: forced to re-live experiences Betrayal: abuser/trafficker repeatedly goes unnoticed by service providers Weekly Readings: Under pressure: Women who plead guilty to crimes they have not committed: Investigates whether there are any gender-specific factors which make it particularly likely that women would make a false confession It was found that women are subject to pressures such as coercion and threats to family responsibilities which make them more compliant to the suggestions of police Women are more likely to make a false confession than men Women sometimes feel the desire to protect their male co-defendant for ‘love’ Women are more likely to confess to male interrogators Cumulative trauma exposure, emotion regulation, and posttraumatic stress disorder among incarcerated women: This study examined associations among trauma exposure, emotion regulation difficulties, and current PTSD in a group of incarcerated women The results indicated cumulative trauma was significantly associated with emotion regulation difficulties They identified a significant indirect effect of emotion regulation on the association between cumulative trauma exposure and the severity of current PTSD symptoms These findings have the potential to inform current efforts to identify and implement effective PTSD-focused interventions with incarcerated women. In particular, it appears that emotion regulation skills may be an important component of effective PTSD-focused interventions for this population. Emotion Regulation: a set of multifaceted skills including awareness and understanding of emotions Women who experienced more cumulative trauma exposures had significantly worse emotion regulation and more severe PTSD symptoms Week 10: Clinical Practice and Women’s Mental Health Mental disorder: A clinic-significant behavioural or psychological syndrome or pattern that occurs in an individual and that is associated with present distress or a disability There are gender differences in the expression of antisocial behaviour; men are more irritable and reckless, whereas women are more impulsive, and lack remorse. There is a sex bias in the diagnosis of BPD; women were rated higher for applicability of the BPD diagnosis than men. Sexism in Clinical Practice - Forms of Gender Bias Etiological Gender Bias: Differential distribution of socio-cultural factors that result in differential rates of psychological disorders Consistent evidence that social and economic factors such as poverty, violence, and abuse can have a profound impact on psychological suffering Women who experienced gender discrimination had higher rates of depression Sampling Bias: The over-representation of women in the mental health system, which could result from women’s greater willingness to seek help Women are twice as likely as men to be diagnosed with depression; men have depression underdiagnosed Diagnostic Gender Bias: i) Criterion bias - occurs when diagnostic criteria represent the role stereotypes of the group most commonly given the diagnosis ii) Assessment bias - the biased application of diagnostic labels E.g. over-diagnosis of certain personality disorders in men vs women (women more likely to be diagnosed with HPD than APD) Relevant Disorders: Histrionic Personality Disorder (HPD) A compulsive desire for attention Relationships with them are superficial Sometimes described as excessively flirtatious Lively and dramatic, always drawing attention to themselves Considers relationships to be more intimate than they really are Young, single, white, middle-class women Dependant Personality Disorder (DPD) Excessively dependent, submissive & passive behaviour patterns They seem incapable of making their own decisions and living independently Belittles what skills s/he does have Being alone is painful Frequently depressed and anxious Middle-class, middle-aged white woman Anti-Social Personality Disorder (APD) Known as a ‘psychopath’ Failure to conform to social norms Deceitfulness (lying, conning) Irritability and aggressiveness Consistent irresponsibility Lack of remorse Young, lower-class male Paranoid Personality Disorder (PPD) In new situations, the person actively searches for "confirmation" of his/her paranoid beliefs Significant problems in relationships Shun intimacy Rigid and uncompromising Hostile, stubborn, and defensive Male in his mid-30s Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) Intense, stormy relationships Unstable sense of self Impulsivity (e.g., drugs, sex, risky driving) Recurrent suicidal behaviour Self-injury (cutting, burning) Emotional instability, including intense anger 85% of people with BPD have a history of abuse My Prof’s Research 1000 clinicians were asked to read and respond to one of four randomly assigned case histories describing a 71-year-old resident of a medium-level seniors' care facility Client gender (i.e., Judith vs. Jerry) and the type of childhood trauma they experienced (i.e., internment in a children's camp during the Holocaust vs. sexual abuse by the father) were manipulated within the case history. Each case history described a resident whose behaviour could be construed as fulfilling the DSM-IV criteria for BPD, PTSD, dementia and depression. Diagnostic ratings: Female trauma survivors received higher diagnostic ratings of BPD than male trauma survivors Psychologists gave higher diagnostic ratings of BPD than psychiatrists Dementia vs. depression vs. PTSD: Trauma survivors received higher ratings of (1) depression than both (2) dementia and (3) PTSD Weekly Readings: Race bias and gender bias in the diagnosis of psychological disorders: The results suggest that race bias occurs in the diagnosis of conduct disorder, antisocial personality disorder, PTSD, eating disorders, etc. The Five-Factor Model is less prone to gender bias than the DSM ​​(a) Gender bias occurred for the diagnosis of histrionic personality disorder and antisocial personality disorders and (b) Race bias occurred for the differential diagnosis of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. Autism may be underdiagnosed in females because the ratio from men to women could be as high as 4.5 to 1 Black children are more likely than other children to be diagnosed with ADHD/learning disabilities Is there a bias in the diagnosis of borderline personality disorder among lesbian, gay, and bisexual patients: The study explored differences in the frequency of diagnosis of BPD based on sexual orientation Sexual minority (LGBTQ) individuals were more likely to be diagnosed with BPD than heterosexual individuals The highest diagnostic disparity was for bisexual compared to heterosexual patients Week 11: Women’s Physical Health Black women have higher rates of breast cancer at a young age, diabetes, stroke, etc. Gender Bias in Medicine Women are significantly less likely to be correctly diagnosed with a heart attack than men (they have different onsets and symptoms, we live in a man's world) There are many examples of large research studies that have used only male subjects (e.g. coffee & heart attacks = 46,000 men, 0 women) Major cardiovascular research studies conducted on only men Clinicians and patients often attribute chest pains in women to non-cardiac causes Studies resulted in differences regarding gender in the diagnostic strategies of the doctors in Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) HIV Women are 33% more likely to die during the course of the study; this is possibly explained by later diagnosis, poor access to health resources, domestic violence, etc. Women are more vulnerable to HIV than men Risk Behaviours: Sexual practices (unprotected sexual intercourse) Sharing behaviour (sharing syringe or equipment) Risk Conditions: i) Structural/Environmental Factors E.g. poverty, low income, unemployment ii) Social Factors E.g. peer influences, risk behaviour of injection partners, serial monogamy iii) Psychological Factors E.g. non-assertiveness, drug desperation Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa: (refusal of food, fear of weight gain, disturbed perception of body image) Bulimia Nervosa: (binge eating then behaviours such as induced vomiting or fasting) Binge-eating disorder: (periods of uncontrolled consumption of large amounts of food, followed by distress) Women & LGBTQ youth more likely to be diagnosed with anorexia & bulimia There are biological (genetics), psychological (depression) & social factors (norms) to why eating disorders happen Weekly Readings: Sex/gender bias in the management of chest pain in ambulatory care: Men with chest pain are 2.5 times more likely to be referred to a cardiologist than women Although the same proportion of women & men present with chest pain of cardiovascular origin in care, there is a strong sex bias in their management Men physicians tend to refer fewer women patients to cardiologists than women physicians This disparity could be linked to the strong belief that cardiovascular diseases are almost exclusively masculine disorders and stereotype ideas among both physicians and patients Week 12: Women in their Senior Years The delayed onset of PTSD in trauma survivors has been attributed to a variety of factors such as loss of family & friends, isolation, ageing Mid 50s are prime time for many women as stereotyped roles diminish Many of women’s problems are caused by external forces: social factors play an integral role in women’s mental & physical well-being Gender-related Discourses (to why PTSD doesn’t get treated) Femininity: Minimization of abuse Self-blame Women are ‘nice, passive’ Masculinity: Unemotional, inexpressive Self-reliance Homophobia Aging & Ageist Discourses It’s just aging Inability to change Nothing to prove anymore Misdiagnosis of Seniors Depression manifests differently in seniors In senior trauma survivors, PTSD often manifests itself physically (headaches, tremors, colitis) Studies have documented how PTSD has been misdiagnosed as an organic brain disorder and dementia Weekly Readings: Assisting older women in combatting ageist stereotypes and improving attitudes toward aging: The authors argue that geriatric rehabilitation settings may enhance vulnerability to these negative effects Older women are perceived as less competent and independent than older men, more asexual, less feminine Self-Stereotyping: older adults can internalize ageist stereotypes throughout their lives and can relate that to themselves Stereotype Threat: a process by which exposure to negative stereotypes elicits anxiety about confirming such stereotypes, and hence causes marginalized groups to underperform on relevant tasks Ageist stereotypes pose a significant threat to the health and well-being of older women Longitudinal evidence is mounting that illustrates the health benefits of positive attitudes toward aging and mortality Therapeutic work is a solution to fostering positive attitudes about old age A phenomenological study of the health and well-being of aging black women in the Greater Toronto Area, Canada: This study aimed to investigate the origins of health inequities to highlight factors that intersect to affect the health and well-being of older black women across their life course Participants’ health and well-being were influenced by gender bias, racism, abuse, and retirement later in life The study demonstrated that Canadians experience health effects of education differently by their genders, and the health effects of income differently by the identities defined at the intersection of race and gender Participant’s descriptions of life events that affected their health and well-being during their childhood and adolescence were related to gender bias rooted in patriarchy and structural racism reinforced by the education system. Another factor that impacted the health and well-being of older Black women was experiences of racism As adults, participants described traumatic life events that they linked to cognitive outcomes such as the onset of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), and trauma-related memory loss, as well as chronic conditions such as hypertension, diabetes, and cancer Further, exposure to chronic stress greatly impacted participant’s mental health and was perceived to have caused chronic illnesses such as hypertension, which is supported by studies that have sought to understand racial disparities in hypertension