Psychology Study Notes - Chapters 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13 PDF

Chapter 2 Key Terms Population: the entire group that is of interest to researchers Sample: the portion of the population that is used in the study Sampling bias: choosing a sample that does not represent your population Random Sampling: making sure every individual in the population has an equa...

Chapter 2 Key Terms Population: the entire group that is of interest to researchers Sample: the portion of the population that is used in the study Sampling bias: choosing a sample that does not represent your population Random Sampling: making sure every individual in the population has an equal chance of being included in your sample. Independent variable: variable you manipulate Dependent variable: variable you measure Experimental group: group of participants that receives the manipulation (independent variable) Control group: group of participants that doesn’t receive the manipulation Random assignment: when each person who is going to participate in your study has an equal chance of going into either of your two groups. Double-blind procedure: neither the participant or researcher knows who is in which group Theory: set of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations Correlations: indicates if there is a relationship between two variables. Correlation is not causation. Inferential statistics: indicate if the difference between groups is meaningful Correlation coefficient: calculated statistic and is symbolized by “r”. A numerical representation of the relation between variables. Descriptive statistics: statistics used to organize raw data into meaningful descriptions -​ Measure of central tendency = numerical value representing center of distribution Ex - mean, median, mode -​ Measures of variability = numerical value representing how different the scores within a group are from each other. Ex - range, standard deviation, variance Research Ethics Board: research oversight group that evaluates research to protect the rights of participants. Informed consent: participants have the right to be informed of all aspects of study prior to participating. No always possible due to: deception, animal subjects, vulnerable populations Debriefing: after participation, participants are fully informed of the purpose of the study Confidentiality: must keep all information about the participant in the strictest confidence Canadian council on animal care: oversees all research involving animal subjects. Animals are only used if research promises significant benefit to humans or animals. Age of viability: by 6 months may be able to survive outside the womb Short Answer What is a science? -​ Events are governed by some lawful order that can be observed, measured, and tested. -​ Scientific method helps the scientific process remain accurate How do psychologists conduct research? Step 1: make observations, review the literature Step 2: develop a testable hypothesis Step 3: choose participants, select the research method, collect data Step 4: analyze the data, accept or reject the hypothesis Step 5: seek scientific review, publish, replicate Step 6: build a theory Methods to collect data:​ 1. Case studied 2. Naturalistic observation 3. Surveys and questionnaire 2 types of research methods: 1.​ Experimental research = research that is used to demonstrate cause and effect. Allow causal conclusions. -​ Pros: good control, cause and effect identified -​ Cons: ethical concerns, artificial conditions 2.​ Correlational research = research that asks how variables are related to each other -​ Researcher measures two or more variables -​ Nothing is manipulated -​ Does not allow cause-effect conclusions  -​ Pros: useful for studying topics that can’t be studied using experimental methods due to ethical/practical reasons, can study behaviour under more natural conditions -​ Cons: does not allow causal conclusions Chapter 4 Key Terms Development: refers to the continuities and changes that occur within the individual between conception and death. Longitudinal design: developmental research design in which the same individuals are studied repeatedly over some subset of their lifespan. -​ Pros: can access developmental change -​ Cons: expensive and time consuming, practice and cohort effects Cross-sectional design: developmental research design in which individuals of different age groups are studied at the same point in time. -​ Pros: less time consuming and expensive, can uncover age differences -​ Cons: can’t distinguish age effects from cohorts, can't asses developmental change Sequential Design: developmental research design in which individuals from different age groups are repeatedly tested over some subset of their lifespan. -​ Pros: less time consuming and expensive, can assess developmental change  -​ Cons: more time consuming and expensive than cross-sectional, can’t generalize results to other cohorts Teratogens: any drug or disease that can have detrimental effects on developing fetus. Cephalocaudal principle: development proceeds from head to foot. Head is largest and the body develops after. Proximodistal principle: development proceeds from innermost to outer. Arms before fingers, torso before arms. Cognition: mental activities that help us function (ex: memory, language, problem-solving) Schemas: organized pattern of thought that represents our understanding of a concept Stranger anxiety (6-18 months): distress over contact with unfamiliar people Separation anxiety (1-3 years): distress over being from primary Short Answer Prenatal Development -​ Beings with conception - sperm and egg unite to bring genetic material together and form one organism. Fertilized cell is called zygote. -​ Germinal stage (10-14 days) - from conception to implantation. Cell division occurs at an exponential rate. Cells begin to differentiate into specialized structures and locations. -​ Embryonic stage (weeks 2 to 8) - most vital organs are formed, a period of vulnerability. Cell differentiation continues as cells develop into organs and bones. -​ Fetal stage (week 9 to 38) - birth. Things that could go wrong -​ Genetic problems, environmental problems Infancy and childhood The newborn - the visual system is least developed, prefers patterned stimuli and mothers face, can do simple observational learning (imitate adult facial expressions). ​ Reflexes in newborn: -​ Rooting reflex = touch around cheek and baby will orient toward touch -​ Moro reflex = when startled by lack of support to the head, baby will flail their arms -​ Grasping reflex = when baby's palm is touched, they squeeze in a very strong grip The brain grows inside out. At birth, the brainstem and midbrain most developed. Primary sensory and motor cortex are the first areas to mature. Last areas to mature are associative areas of the cortex. Age of acquiring skills varies, but the sequence does not. Cognitive development (Jean Piaget) -​ Studied errors in cognition in children to see how different they are from adults -​ Identified stages of cognitive development -​ We build schemas -​ Nature and nurture -​ Development proceeds in stages Two ways schemas are modified 1)​ Assimilation: new experiences incorporated into what we already know 2)​ Accommodation: new experiences cause change in what we already know Stages of development 1.​ Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 years): -​ Understand world through senses and physical interactions with objects -​ Begin to acquire language -​ 6-8 months develop object permanence (understand objects exist even when they cant be seen) 2.​ Preoperational stage (2 - 7 years): -​ World is represented symbolically through words and mental images -​ Symbolic thinking enables pretend play 3.​ Concrete operational stage (7 - 11 years): -​ Easily perform basic mental operations involving tangible problems and situations -​ Can interact in conversation -​ Difficulties with abstract problems 4.​ Formal operational stage (11+ years): -​ Can think logically about concrete and abstract problems -​ Able to form and test hypotheses Cognitive development (Vygotsky) -​ Social interaction is important for development -​ Children learn thinking skills by internalizing language from others and developing inner speech -​ Development viewed as building on a scaffold of mentoring, language, and cognitive support from parents, siblings, teachers, etc.  -​ Ideal level of instruction is the zone of proximal development - child can’t quite do alone but can with guidance of teacher/helper Attachment Styles Secure attachment (60%) - most children fall in this category, infant explores when caregiver is present and upset when leaves. Greets caregiver warmly upon return and seeks comfort Anxious type (10%) - infant clings on caregiver and less likely to explore the environment. Upset when the caregiver leaves and likely remains upset when they return. Avoidant type (15%) - infant shows little distress when caregiver leaves and seems to ignore them. May be sociable with or ignore stranger. Disorganized type (15%) - infant seems to both approach and avoid caregiver. May act dazed or freeze. Chapter 5 Key Terms Sensation: stimulus-detection process. Organs translate stimuli into nerve impulses. Perception: organizing and giving meaning to input Sensory adaptation: diminishing sensitivity to unchanging stimulus. Frees senses from the unchanging to be more sensitive to changes in the environment. Top-down processing: using models, ideas, and expectations to interpret sensory information (is that something i've seen before?) Bottom-up processing: taking sensory information and then assembling and integrating it (what am I seeing?) Perceptual set: what we see what we expect to see Divided attention: multitasking, paying attention to more than one stimulus at a time. Selective attention: involves focusing on one stimulus or ask while ignoring other stimuli Inattentional blindness: when the effects of attention are so strong that we fail to see stimuli that are directly in front of our eyes Gestalt principles: patter, shape, form. The wholes we perceive are more than the sum of their parts. Optic disc: an area of the retina that contains no rods or cones because this is the point where the optic nerve leaves the eye Trichromatic theory (Young-Helmholtz): three types of colour receptors in the retina.Individual cones most sensitive to blue, green, or red wavelengths of light. Visual system combines activity from these cells to allow us to perceive all the colours. Cons: cannot explain afterimages. Opponent-process theory: three cone types, and each responds to two different wavelengths. Explains afterimages. Neural processes become fatigued. Have rebound effect with the receptor responding with its opponent, opposite reaction. Primary visual cortex (occipital lobe): specific regions of the retina are processed in specific areas of cortex. Feature detectors: cells in the primary visual cortex that are very particular about what will make them fire. Feature detectors begin the visual process by firing to specific shapes, colours, depths, movements, etc of a stimulus. From there there are two main pathways, the ventral stream and dorsal stream. Parallel processing: different areas of the brain process different aspects of a stimulus. Sound waves: described by frequency (pitch) and amplitude (loudness) Conduction hearing loss: when the middle ear isn't conducting sound well to the cochlea Sensorineural hearing loss: when the receptor cells aren't sending messages through the auditory nerves. Pheromones: chemical signals found in natural body scents Short Answer Gestalt Principles:​ Proximity - elements that are close together belong together Similarity - similar items belong together Continuity - elements linked to from continuous line Closure - close open edges; perceive boundaries The Active process of Perception: Perceptual constancies: refers to our ability to see objects as appearing a constant colour, size, and shape, despite continual changes in our perspective (top-down process). Colour constancy: we see consistent colour in changing illumination conditions. Brightness constancy: we see a consistent brightness in changing shadow conditions. Shape constancy: we see a constant shape in an object despite receiving different sensory images of the shape. Size constancy: we see objects as having a constant size, despite changes to the sensory input with variations in distance. The Visual System: Light -​ Stimulus our visual system processes is light, or waves of electromagnetic radiation -​ Our eyes respond to some of these waves -​ We perceive the wavelength/frequency of the light waves as color -​ We perceive the amplitude/height of the light waves as brightness -​ Light from the pencil travels through the cornea and the pupil, and gets focused and inverted by the lens. -​ The light then lands on the retina, where the light waves are transduced into a neural signal. The Visual System: The Retina Layer 1: Photoreceptors -​ Transduce light waves into neural impulse -​ Two different kinds: rods and cones ​ Rods - function best in low illumination. Found mostly in of retina fovea ​ Cones - for colour and detail, function best in high, concentrated in fovea (center retina). Layer 2: Bipolar cells -​ Rods and cones have synaptic connections with bipolar cells -​ Cones have one to one connection. Many rods connect to single bipolar cell Layer 3: Ganglion cells -​ Bipolar cells synapse with ganglion cells -​ Axons of ganglion cells form optic nerve Preventing Hearing Loss -​ Loud sounds can cause damage to the hair cells -​ Structures of the middle and inner ear can also be damaged by disease Treating Hearing Loss -​ Conduction hearing loss helped with hearing aids that amplify the sounds -​ Sensorineural hearing loss helped with cochlear implant that translates sound waves into signals the brain can process. The Auditory System: Loudness Refers to more intense sound vibrations that the brain can interpret using: -​ The firing rate of the hair cells: higher amplitude sound waves cause greater release of neurotransmitter, firing rate. -​ The number of hair cells firing: higher amplitude sound waves move more hair cells than softer sounds. -​ The type of hair cell firing: certain neurons fire only to specific amplitudes The Auditory System: Pitch -​ Frequency theory: nerve impulses match frequency of wave. Does not work for frequencies above 1000 hz. -​ Place theory: specific frequencies peak at certain places on the cochlea, depending on pitch. The brain reads pitch by reading the location where the signals are coming from. The Auditory System: Sound Localization Binaural hearing (2 ears) helps us localize sound in two ways: -​ Timing of sounds: sounds arrive at closest ear first -​ Intensity of sounds: sound arriving at closest ear will be more intense The Auditory System: Neural Pathways Impulses go from thalamus to the primary auditory cortex (temporal lobe). Specific regions of the cochlea are represented in specific areas of the cortex. From there, signals go to the secondary auditory cortex. Interprets complex sound (speech and music). The Chemical Senses Rely on chemical molecules, not a form of energy Taste: -​ Chemical receptors = taste buds, each with several receptor cells. Respond to 4 basic qualities: sweet, sour, salty, bitter. Chapter 8 Key Terms Memory: processes that allow us to record and retrieve experiences and information Recall: retrieve previously stored information Recognition: identify which stimulus, out of a bunch of choices, matches your store information Relearning: compare rates of learning information on successive occasions to the first occasion Iconic Memory: visual memory is less than a second Echoic Memory: auditory memory lasts roughly 5 seconds Chunking: used to increase capacity. Combining individual items into larger units of meaning Retrieval cue: any stimulus that leads to activation of information stored in long term memory. Forgetting: rapid loss of memory at first, then a more gradual decline. We forget because: brain damage, encoding failure, storage decay, retrieval failure, interference Proactive interference: past material interferes with recall of newer material Retroactive interference: new information interferes with ability to recall older information Misinformation effect: distortion of memory by misleading post-event information Human lesion studies: study memory loss due to brain damage Nonhuman animal lesion studies: deliberate damage to brain regions Brain imaging studies: examine healthy brain as participants perform memory tasks Hippocampus: convert short term memories into long term. Memory consolidation (binding process in the brain). Cerebral cortex: encoding information from sensory memory. Store explicit memories Prefrontal cortex: involved in functions of working memory. Deep processing increases brain activity in the left prefrontal cortex. Thalamus: damage results in extensive anterograde and retrograde amnesia Amygdala: emotional aspects of memory Cerebellum: stores conditioned responses Basal ganglia: procedural memory Primary effect: superior recall of early items on list Recency effect: superior recall of last items on list Encoding: getting information in Automatic processing: unintentional and requiring minimal attention. Effortful processing: intentional and conscious Depth of processing: increases recall. Structural (shallow), phonemic (deeper), semantic (deepest). Maintenance rehearsal: repetition of information. Not optimal. Elaborative rehearsal: focuses on information’s meaning. May involve: chunking, understanding, relating to already learned concepts, using imagery. Self-reference effect: relating material to ourselves helps memory Dual coding theory: memory enhanced in use of multiple memory codes. Can think of how it sounds or how it looks. Leads to deeper processing and more retrieval cues. Mnemonic devices: memory airs intended to improve memory for specific information. Acronyms, first letter technique. Storage: long term memory is organized like a web of associations. Priming: activation of one concept leads to activation of other, related concepts Short Answer Process of forming and using memory 1)​ Encoding - getting information in by translating it into neural code that your brain can process 2)​ Storage - retaining the information over time 3)​ Retrieval - getting information back out of storage when we want to use it The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model -​ Assumes memory is a multistage process in which information flows along threw separate and interacting memory stores -​ These memory stores do not correspond to specific brain structures, but more to different processes of memory (encoding, storage, retrieval). Sensory Memory: -​ Briefly holds sensory information -​ The initial information processor: selects what details to pay attention to, and sends this information on for further processing. Short Term Memory: -​ Temporarily holds a limited amount of information -​ Memory represented in various forms, not necessarily corresponding to the form of the original stimulus. Working Memory: -​ Mental workspace which we store and actively processes information For short term and working memory: -​ Limited capacity system being around 7 items -​ Information lost unless we do active rehearsal. ​ Maintenance rehearsal - simple repetition ​ Elaborative rehearsal - focus on meaning Long Term Memory: -​ Library of durable stored memory -​ Storage capacity unlimited -​ Can ensure for a lifetime How to see better retrieval -​ Multiple retrieval cues: involves deeper processing -​ Self generated retrieval cues: have personal meaning -​ A match between conditions of encoding and retrieval: likely because cue is linked to memory Brain Damage and Forgetting Retrograde amnesia: inability to retrieve memory of the past Anterograde amnesia: inability to form new long-term, explicit memories Forgetting: -​ Decay of memory trace - Long term physical trace in nervous system fades away over time and with disuse -​ Retrieval failure - sometimes memory is intact but the associations and links to the memory are decayed. Building multiple associations and links at the time of encoding can help prevent retrieval failure. -​ Interference - information forgotten because other items in long term memory impair ability to retrieve it. Memory is a constructive process and altered everytime we recall. The Biology of Memory -​ Emotions trigger an increase in stress hormones -​ These hormones trigger the amygdala, next to the memory-forming hippocampus -​ The amygdala increases memory forming activity and engages the frontal lobes and basal ganglia to tas the memory as important -​ As a result, the memories are stored with more sensory and emotional details Chapter 9 Key Terms Language: system of symbols and rules for combining symbols for the purpose of communication. Has a hierarchical organization that allows translation between thought and sound. Language production: the structured and conventional expression of thoughts through words Speech: the expression of language through sounds Language comprehension: the process of understanding spoken, written, or signed language Sentence: a coherent sequence of words that express meaning Word: the smallest free form in a language Morpheme: the smallest unit of sound that can carry meaning Phoneme: the smallest unit of sound that can distinguish words in a language Syntax: system of rules for arranging words to convey a specific meaning Pragmatics: practical aspects of language use, such as pace, gesturing, tone, and body language Prelinguistic period: period prior to the production of the first word. Infants show early sensitivity to speech. Initial vocalizations similar across languages. Behaviourist theory: adults shape child's speech through reinforcement (Skinner). Children learn by imitating adults (Bandura). Use of child-directed speech. But, difficult to reinforce all utterances, grammar not shaped, early errors creative, not imitative. Nativist theory: certain inversal features common to all languages that are innate. Humans are biologically programmed to acquire language (Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device). But, ignoring the contribution of the environment, language learning is a gradual process, difficult to account for the wide variety of languages. Interactionist view: says both nature and nurture are important for language acquisition. Broca’s area: critical for speech production Wenicke’s area: critical for language comprehension Problem solving: process in which one begins with a goal and seeks steps that will lead to that goal. In a well defined problem, the goal and operators are clearly specified In an ill-defined problem, the goal and operators are not clearly specified Algorithms: systematic trial and error Heuristics: shortcuts. No guaranteed solution, but they effectively narrow the range of possible solutions. Forming subgoals: break the problem into a bunch of intermediate steps and then solve each step Hill-climbing strategy: the heuristic that always moves you in the direction of the goal. However, many problems require you to move away from the goal. Working backwards: when the solution has a well-specified endpoint, it may be easier to solve the problem by starting at the end point and working backwards. Decision Making: evaluating alternatives and making choices among them. Availability heuristic: basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind. Representativeness heuristic: basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical case of that event. Ignore base rates: ignoring information about the broad likelihood of a particular category or type of event Conjunction fallacy: occurs when people estimate the odds of two uncertain events happening together as greater than the odds of either event happening alone. Confirmation bias: the tendency to be more responsive to evidence that confirms one’s beliefs and less responsive to evidence that challenges one’s beliefs. Framing effect: the fact that decisions are based on how the issues are presented or how choices are structured. Short Answer Language Development Telegraphic Speech (by age 2) - simple two word sentences that contain only the crucial content Pragmatics (age 3) - basic understanding of practical information regarding language Grammer (age 4) - basic rules of grammar are understood without formal education Types of Problems Problems inducing structure: Require you to discover the relationship among numbers, words, symbols, or ideas Problems of arrangement: requires you to arrange the parts of a problem to satisfy some criterion. Anagrams: rearrange the letters to make an english word Problems of transformation: requires you to carry out a series of transformations in order to reach a specific goal Problem Solving Strategies -​ Searching for analogies: we can make an analogy with another problem we have previously solved -​ Use mental imagery -​ Get rid of irrelevant information Barriers to Problem Solving Functional fixedness: the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use Mental set: when people get locked into a particular line of thinking when trying to solve a problem Unnecessary constraints: when people impose their own constraints on the problem when those constraints don’t exist Chapter 10 Key Terms Intelligence: the ability to learn and to meet the demands of the environment effectively Metacognition: the ability to understand and control one’s mental activities Mental age: the age at which an individual is performing intellectually Crystalized intelligence: ability to apply previously learned knowledge to current problems Fluid intelligence: ability to deal with novel problem-solving situations without any previous knowledge Electrophysiological studies: modest relation between IQ score and speed of processing PET scans: lower levels of glucose in people of high intelligence Neural plasticity: forming new connections may underlie differences in intelligence Short Answer Intelligence Testing Standardization: -​ Environment = controls for extraneous factors that could differ across testing situations -​ Norms = provides basis for interpreting your score Sir Francis Galton -​ Argued mental ability is inherited -​ Theory of psychophysical performance -​ Tested sensory processing, motor skills, and reaction time Alfred Binet -​ Development of the first standardized intelligence test Lewis Terman -​ Stanford-binet intelligence scale -​ Used binet’s MA to develop intelligence quotient Spearman -​ Used factor analysis to determine the structure of intelligence -​ General intelligence - g factor -​ Specific abilities - s factors David Wechsler -​ Recognized two problems with current tests: distinction between mental and chronological age becomes less informative with increasing age. Don’t want language arrears to cloud IQ scores. -​ Series of subtests (verbal and performance): wechlsler adult intelligence scale, weshsler intelligence scale for children, wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence. Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences -​ nine relatively independent intelligences: linguistic, math, visual-spatial. Tested on traditional intelligence tests. -​ Musical, body-kinesthetic, persona, naturalistic, existentialist. Not tested on traditional intelligence tests. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Intelligence is a function of the interaction between innate potential, environment, and motivation Influencers on Intelligence Environment: -​ Adoption studies -​ Cumulative deprivation hypothesis -​ The flynn effect Emotional Intelligence: -​ Read others emotions -​ Response to others appropriately -​ Motivate oneself -​ Regulate and control one’s own emotional responses -​ Awareness of one’s own emotions Chapter 11 Key Terms Motivation: a process that influences the direction, persistence, and vigorous of goal-directed behavior Instinct theory: argues that instincts are more motivating. Little support, simplistic explanations, heredity partly accounts for motivational differences among people. Adaptive significance: people are motivated to engage in behaviours that promote survival advantages. Homeostasis: internal physiological equilibrium that the body strives to maintain. Requires sensory mechanism, response system, and control center. Drive reduction theory: we act to reduce physical needs and restore balance in the body. Arousal theory: we are motivated to pursue an optimum level of stimulation. Some behaviors increase and others decrease arousal. Yerkes-Dodson Law: performance on a task is best when the arousal level is optimal for that specific task Incentives: stimuli that pull an organism toward a goal Incentive theory: behavior is determined by the strength of the expectation that behavior will lead to a goal and the incentive value placed on that goal. Primary incentives: rewards or punishments that are innate Secondary incentives: stimuli that are viewed as rewarding as a result of learning about their association with other events. Extrinsic motivation: performing an activity to obtain an external reward or to avoid punishment Intrinsic motivation: performing an activity for its own sake Set point theory: biologically determined standard around which fat mass is regulated. Homeostatic mechanisms alter energy utilization and hunger to return us close to original weight. Lateral Hypothalamus: may be involved in stimulating eating. Is not a “hunger on” center Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH): may influence stopping eating, is not a “hunger off” center Paraventricular nucleus (PVS): various neurotransmitters Obesity: body mass index (BMI) is a measure of body fat based on height and weight Prefrontal cortex: ability to regulate emotion Short Answer Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs We are motivated to fill needs from the bottom of the hierarchy before we fill the top. Signals to Start a Meal -​ Decline in blood glucose levels -​ Liver converts stores nutrients into glucose -​ Blood glucose levels rise -​ Produce drop-rise pattern in glucose: changes in supply of glucose provide signals that help the brain regulate hunger. Signals to End a Meal -​ Stomach and intestinal distention -​ Cholecystokinin (CCK) and other peptides released by the small intestine into the bloodstream, travel to the brain. Signals that Regulate Appetite and Weight -​ Hormone secreted by fat cells -​ Signals brain to decrease appetite and increase energy expenditure Psychological Aspects of Hunger -​ Eating is positively reinforced by good taste and negatively reinforced by hunger reduction -​ Expectations that eating will be pleasurable and will reduce hunger stimulate eating -​ Beliefs, memories, and attitudes about food can also affect eating -​ Pleasure for thinnest ​ Cultural standards of beauty have changed ​ Objectification theory (viewing body as object) -​ Women overestimate how thin they need to be -​ Men overestimate how bulky they need to be Environmental Factors Affecting Eating -​ Food variety -​ Smell And sight of food -​ Presence of others -​ Familiarity of food -​ stress Hunger and Eating Genetic influences on obesity:​ - influence basal metabolism and tendency to store energy as fat or lean tissue Environmental influences on obesity: -​ Inexpensive, tasty foods high in fat and or carbs -​ Supersizing due to cultural value of getting best value -​ Decreased daily activity due to technological advances Sexual Motivation Motivations: desire to reproduce, express love and intimacy, obtain and give sensual pleasure 4 Stages of Sex: 1)​ Excitement - Vasocongestion: blood flow increases to genitals 2)​ Plateau - Increase in vasocongestion, heart rate, respiration, muscle tension 3)​ Orgasm - Rhythmic contractions 4)​ Resolution - Genital organs return to normal. Males enter refractory period, females may orgasm more Hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland which regulates secretions of gonadotropins which affect secretion of androgens and estrogens. Excitement phase: hypothalamus, amygdala, prefrontal cortex, striatum, and ventral tegmental area Orgasm phase: cerebellum and ventral tegmental area The psychology of sex Fantasy: connection between mental processes and psychological functioning Desire: sexual stimulus perceived positively. Negative influences:Z stress, fatigue, anger, performance anxiety Three Features Common to all Emotions 1)​ Cognitive component - subjective conscious experience -​ Involved in every aspect of emotion -​ Interpretations and meanings attached to sensory stimuli -​ Different appraisals can result in different behaviors. Influences expressions and actions. Different reactions to the same event. 2)​ Physiological component - bodily arousal  -​ Interactions between cortical and subcortical structures -​ Hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus -​ Stimulation can produce aggression -​ Destruction can produce absence of aggression -​ Thalamus sends sensory input along two independent neural pathways ​ One directly to amygdala - emotional and behavioural ​ One to cerebral cortex - conscious interpretation -​ Amygdala can process input before interpretation by the cortex -​ Emotions are accompanied by sympathetic autonomic nervous system activation, followed by parasympathetic ANS activation. 3)​ Behavioural component - characteristic overt expressions -​ Expressive behaviors -​ Observable emotional displays -​ Infer emotions of others -​ Product of evolution (Darwin) - emotional expression contributed to species survival. Similarity in basic emotional expressions across species -​ Modern evolutionary theorists - fundamental emotional patterns. Expression of certain emotions is similar across a variety of cultures. Children blind from birth express basic emotions as sighted children do. -​ Facial expressions: judging emotion done best in context of situation. General agreement across cultures. Women are generally more accurate. James-Lange Somatic theory of emotion. Body informs the mind. Physiological reactions determine emotions Cannon-Bard Theory -​ Cognition is involved -​ Stimuli - thalamus - cortex - emotion The Role of Autonomic Feedback -​ Feedback from the body’s reactions to eliciting stimuli is critical to emotional experience -​ Not so for cannon-Bard -​ People with spinal cord injuries support idea that feedback from the body is not necessary for emotional experience Facial Feedback Hypothesis -​ Muscular feedback to the brain plays a key role in emotional experience -​ Vascular theory of emotional feedback ​ Tensing facial muscles alters temperature of blood flow. Cooling increases positive affect Warming increases negative affect Schachter Theory Look to external cues to decide what to feel  -​ Physiological arousal = how strongly we feel -​ Labeling = what we feel Chapter 13 Key Terms Social Psychology: brand of psychology that deals with how the individual is affected by others. In order to fully understand social reality, I need to study the interaction between the person and the situation. Mimicry: taking on for ourselves the behaviours, emotional displays, and facial expressions of others Chameleon effect: nonconscious mimicry of others that involves automatically copying others behaviour without realizing (ex: yawning) Social norms: the (unusually unwritten) guidelines for how to behave in social context Social Facilitation: the improvement in performance because others are present. Operates for both physical and mental tasks. Social Loafing: the tendency to expend less individual effort when working in a group than when working alone. ​ Caused by the belief that: -​ Individual performance is not being monitored -​ Goal or task has little value/meaning to person -​ Tas is simple and persons effort is redundant Group polarization: when people of similar views form a group, discussion within the group makes their views more extreme. Thus, different groups become more different, more polarized, in their views. Groupthink: in pursuit of social harmony (and avoidance of open disagreement), the group makes decisions without an open exchange of ideas. Ironically, it leads to less thinking. Conformity: adjusting our behavior or thinking to fit in with a group standard Short Answer You are more likely to conform when: -​ Others conform first -​ Responses are made publicly -​ You are not firmly committed to one set of beliefs or style of behavior -​ The group is medium sized and unanimous -​ You feel positive toward the group -​ The group tries to make you feel incompetent, insecure, and closely watched -​ Your task is ambiguous or unclear -​ Your culture encourages respect for norms Two Types of Social Influence Explain Conformity