PSY100 Final Prep PDF

Chapter 1 Definition Example Hub science A discipline that connects and Understanding memory and informs various fields of stress helps lawyers better study. Psychology is question witnesses, and co...

Chapter 1 Definition Example Hub science A discipline that connects and Understanding memory and informs various fields of stress helps lawyers better study. Psychology is question witnesses, and considered a hub science due knowledge of learning to its connections with supports teaching practices. medicine, social sciences, and education. Voluntarism An approach introduced by In Wundt's reaction-time Wilhelm Wundt that experiment, participants emphasizes the role of chose what to attend to, conscious will and choice in showing the role of will in determining thoughts, perception. perceptions, and behaviors. Structuralism Founded by Edward Describing an apple in terms Titchener, this approach of its color, smell, and texture breaks down mental rather than as a whole object. processes into the most basic components, such as sensations, images, and feelings. Introspection The personal observation of Noticing you feel anxious one’s own thoughts, feelings, before an exam is an and behavior. introspective observation. Functionalism A perspective associated with Enjoying high-fat foods like William James that views ice cream because they behaviour as purposeful and provided energy for survival contributing to survival. in ancestral environments. Behaviourism Focuses on observable, Pavlov's dogs salivate at the measurable behaviours rather sound of a bell due to than internal mental states. classical conditioning. John Watson, B.F. Skinner. Humanism A psychological perspective Rather than measuring emphasizing personal growth, intelligence only through IQ self-actualization, and the tests, a humanistic inherent goodness and psychologist might focus on potential of individuals. how well a person realizes Carl Rogers, Abraham their unique potential and  Maslow. how fulfilling their life feels to them. Biological Psychology Examines the physiological Using fMRI to study which bases of behaviour in humans areas of the brain activate and animals. when people are hungry. Evolutionary Psychology Explores how evolutionary Being more sensitive to bitter principles such as natural tastes helps humans avoid selection influence behavior. poisonous substances. Cognitive Psychology Studies mental processes such Researching how people as perception, memory, and remember lists of words using problem-solving. working memory models. Developmental Psychology Focuses on how people grow Studying how children’s and change throughout the ability to delay gratification lifespan. develops with age. Social Psychology Examines how individuals are Investigating how peer influenced by others and by pressure affects teenagers’ social environments. decision-making. Personality Psychology Studies individual differences Assessing whether someone and characteristic patterns of is introverted or extroverted thinking, feeling, and and how that affects their behaving. behavior. Clinical Psychology Focuses on diagnosing and Using cognitive-behavioral treating mental illness and therapy to treat depression. emotional disturbances. Chapter 2 Definition Example Theory A set of facts and A theory might explain how relationships between facts stress impacts performance that explains and predicts and predict outcomes in related phenomena. various stress-related tasks. Hypothesis A proposed explanation for a If people watch a 'stress is situation, usually in 'if A, then good' video, then their B' format. performance will improve. Construct A hypothetical attribute used Anxiety is a construct used to to explain behaviour that describe symptoms like cannot be directly observed. fidgeting or sweating. Operational definition A definition of a construct in Measuring anxiety via a  terms that allow it to be self-report scale or measured. physiological response. Independent variable The variable manipulated by The type of stress video the researcher to observe its shown ('stress is good' vs. effect. 'stress is bad'). Dependent variable The outcome that is measured Work performance or anxiety to assess the effect of the levels after watching the independent variable. video. Descriptive research Methods used to observe and A case study on a person who describe behaviour, such as experienced cyberbullying. case studies and surveys. Survey A descriptive method where Asking university students participants answer the same about their cyberbullying questions. experiences. Case study An in-depth analysis of the The study of Henry behaviour of one or a few Molaison's memory deficits. people. Correlational study Measures the direction and Relating hours of social strength of a relationship media use to depression between two variables. symptoms. Directionality problem Uncertainty about which Does social media cause variable influences the other depression, or vice versa? in a correlation. Third-variable problem A third factor may be A stressful life event may influencing both correlated increase both social media variables. use and depression. Correlation coefficient A numerical index of the A correlation of +0.80 direction and strength of a suggests a strong positive relationship. relationship. Experiment A method to test causal Testing if stress mindset hypotheses by manipulating videos cause performance variables. changes. Causal claims Statements that one variable 'Stress is good' videos cause causes a change in another. higher work performance. Random assignment Randomly placing Randomly assigning participants into different participants to video  experimental groups. conditions. Random sample Participants are chosen so Using a random generator to every member of the recruit survey participants. population has an equal chance of selection. Confound A variable that may influence If one group had more sleep the dependent variable along than another, sleep could be a with the independent variable. confound. Quasi-experiment An experiment that lacks Comparing stress levels in random assignment. two naturally formed groups. Field experiment An experiment conducted in a Testing behavior changes natural setting. from a stress video in a workplace. External validity The extent to which findings A lab finding about stress generalize to real-world holds true in workplace settings. settings. Internal validity The degree to which an Controlling all variables experiment supports a clear except the video message causal conclusion. ensures high internal validity. Reliability The consistency of a measure. A stress scale gives similar results over multiple trials. Replication Repeating a study to confirm Repeating a stress video study its results. with a new sample to verify findings. Descriptive statistics Statistical methods that Mean and standard deviation summarize data. of anxiety scores. Inferential statistics Techniques to determine if Using a t-test to evaluate results generalize to the video condition differences. population. Mean The average of a set of The mean test score was 75. numbers. Median The middle score in a In a dataset [1, 3, 5], the distribution. median is 3. Normal distribution/curve A symmetrical bell-shaped Height tends to follow a distribution of data. normal distribution. WEIRD samples Samples from Western, Psychology research done Educated, Industrialized, only on North American Rich, and Democratic university students. societies, which may limit generalizability. Open science A movement to make Pre-registering a study and scientific research transparent sharing data publicly. and accessible. Informed consent A participant's agreement to Signing a form before take part after being informed participating in a study. of risks and benefits. Research Ethics Board A committee that reviews Ensuring participant research proposals for ethical confidentiality and safety. concerns. Debriefing Explaining the study’s Telling participants the real purpose and any deception purpose after a social after participation. influence experiment. Animal Care Committee Oversees the ethical treatment Approving housing and of animal research subjects. procedures for mice in a behavioral study. Chapter 4 Definition Example Neuron A cell specialized to send and Neurons carry signals from receive neural messages. your toe to your brain when you stub it. Axon The branch of a neuron Axons extend from the spinal responsible for transmitting cord to your big toe. information to other neurons. Dendrite Branches from the neuron Dendrites receive signals that receive input from other from neighboring neurons. neurons. Myelin sheath Insulating material covering Signals in myelinated axons some axons, speeding up travel up to 20 times faster. neural transmission. Cell body The central part of a neuron Processes input from containing the nucleus and dendrites and starts output via cell machinery. the axon. Nodes of Ranvier Gaps between segments of Enable saltatory conduction myelin on axons where action to speed up signal potentials occur. propagation. Action potential An electrical signal generated Triggered when a neuron in the neuron's axon. reaches a certain threshold of activation. Resting potential The electrical charge of a A neuron at rest is negatively neuron when not active. charged inside relative to the outside. Synaptic cleft The gap between two neurons Neurotransmitters cross this at a synapse. gap to transmit signals. Receptor A protein on a neuron that Dopamine binds to its binds to neurotransmitters. receptor to influence mood. Neurotransmitters Chemicals that carry Serotonin regulates mood and messages across synapses appetite. between neurons. Agonist A chemical that mimics or Nicotine is an agonist for enhances the action of a acetylcholine receptors. neurotransmitter. Antagonist A chemical that blocks or Beta-blockers act as reduces a neurotransmitter’s antagonists to norepinephrine. effects. Reuptake The process where SSRIs block serotonin neurotransmitters are reuptake to treat depression. reabsorbed by the neuron that released them. Autonomic nervous system Controls involuntary bodily Activates fight-or-flight (ANS) functions like heartbeat and responses during stress. digestion. Basal ganglia Subcortical structures Affected in Parkinson’s involved in voluntary disease, impairing movement. movement. Brainstem Connects the brain to the Regulates heart rate and spinal cord and controls vital breathing. functions. Central nervous system Composed of the brain and Processes and coordinates all (CNS) spinal cord. bodily functions. Cerebellum Coordinates movement and Damage can lead to poor balance. coordination and unsteady movement. Cerebral cortex The outer layer of the brain is Handles thinking, planning, involved in higher mental and language. functions. Cingulate cortex A subregion of the cerebral Activated during experiences cortex involved in emotion, of physical pain and decision-making, and emotional distress. autonomic control. Corpus callosum A large band of neural fibers Allows communication connecting the two brain between the left and right hemispheres. sides of the brain. Endocrine system A system of glands that Regulates metabolism, stress, release hormones into the and reproduction. bloodstream. Executive functions Cognitive processes managed Used when organizing a study by the prefrontal cortex such schedule or resisting as planning, attention, and distractions. problem-solving. Frontal lobe Part of the cerebral cortex Used when solving a math involved in decision-making, problem or controlling personality, and voluntary behavior. movement. Glia Support cells in the nervous Form the myelin sheath and system that assist neurons help maintain the blood-brain with structural support, barrier. nutrition, and repair. GABA The primary inhibitory Helps prevent neurotransmitter in the brain. overstimulation; linked to It plays a crucial role in anxiety regulation. regulating neuronal excitability by causing hyperpolarization and inhibiting neurotransmitter release, ultimately promoting a calming effect. GABA is  synthesized from the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. Glutamate The main excitatory Important for learning and neurotransmitter in the brain. memory processes. Crucial for various functions including learning, memory, and brain development. Serotonin A neurotransmitter involved Low levels are linked to in mood, appetite, and sleep depression and anxiety. regulation. Dopamine A neurotransmitter associated Plays a role in addiction and with reward, motivation, and Parkinson’s disease. motor control. Acetylcholine A neurotransmitter involved Deficiency is linked to in muscle action, learning, Alzheimer’s disease. and memory. Epinephrine (adrenaline) Also known as adrenaline, a Increases heart rate during hormone involved in arousal stressful situations. and fight-or-flight response. Norepinephrine A neurotransmitter and Boosts attention and is hormone important for involved in stress responses. alertness and arousal. Hippocampus A brain structure involved in Damage impairs the ability to the formation of new form long-term memories. memories. Hypothalamus Regulates homeostasis and Controls hunger, thirst, and links the nervous system to temperature regulation. the endocrine system via the pituitary gland. HPA-axis The system connects the Activates cortisol release hypothalamus, pituitary under stress. gland, and adrenal glands involved in stress response. Neurogenesis The birth of new neurons, Enhanced by exercise and mostly occurring in the enriched environments. hippocampus. Neuroplasticity The brain's ability to change Occurs during learning or and adapt structurally and after injury recovery. functionally. Nucleus accumbens Part of the brain’s reward Activated by addictive drugs circuitry, involved in and rewarding experiences. motivation and pleasure. Occipital lobe Processes visual information. Helps you recognize faces and interpret colors. Orbitofrontal cortex Part of the frontal lobe Plays a role in evaluating involved in decision-making, rewards and punishments. emotion, and social behavior. Parasympathetic nervous Part of the autonomic nervous Slows heart rate after a system system that calms the body stressful event. and conserves energy. Parietal lobe Processes sensory Helps you locate objects in information related to touch, space. body position, and spatial awareness. Peripheral nervous system All nerves outside the brain Transmits sensory (PNS) and spinal cord. information to the CNS. Prefrontal cortex Front part of the frontal lobe Used when making plans or responsible for executive controlling impulses. functions. Reticular formation A network in the brainstem Helps you stay awake and involved in arousal and attentive. alertness. Somatic nervous system Part of the PNS that controls Controls hand movement voluntary muscle movements while writing. and transmits sensory information. Sympathetic nervous system Part of the autonomic nervous Increases heart rate during system that prepares the body fear or excitement. for action. Temporal lobe Processes auditory Helps you understand spoken information and supports words. language and memory. Thalamus A subcortical structure that Acts as a sensory 'gateway' to relays sensory information to the brain. the cerebral cortex. Chapter 5 Definition Example Sensation The process of detecting Detecting the smell of baking environmental stimuli or cookies. stimuli arising from the body. Perception The process of interpreting Recognizing the smell as sensory information. chocolate chip cookies. Psychophysics The study of relationships Measuring how much light between the physical qualities needs to change before you of stimuli and the subjective notice it. responses they produce. Signal detection theory Analyzes sensory and A doctor deciding if a decision-making processes in mammogram shows cancer or the detection of faint, not. uncertain stimuli. Absolute threshold The smallest amount of Seeing a candle flame 48 km stimulus that can be detected. away on a dark night. Difference threshold The smallest detectable Noticing one chip is saltier difference between two than another. stimuli. Sensory adaptation The tendency to pay less Becoming less aware of a attention to a non changing strong perfume after being source of stimulation. around it for a while. Audition The sense of hearing. Hearing a violin during a concert. Agnosia Inability to recognize sensory Being unable to recognize stimuli despite having intact faces despite seeing them sensory functions. clearly (prosopagnosia). Binocular cue Depth cue that requires the Retinal disparity helps judge use of both eyes. distance between objects. Bottom-up processing Perception based on building Identifying a shape based on simple input into more its lines and edges. complex perceptions. Top-down processing Perception that requires Reading a jumbled sentence memory and cognitive correctly based on processes to interpret sensory experience. input. Cochlea A spiral-shaped structure in Converts sound vibrations the inner ear that processes into neural signals. sound. Cone Photoreceptors in the retina Allow you to distinguish red that detect colour and fine from green. detail. Cornea The clear surface at the front Bends incoming light toward of the eye that begins the retina. focusing light to the retina. Depth perception The ability to perceive the Estimating how far away a world in three dimensions and car is while crossing the judge distance. street. Fovea Area of the retina specialized Focusing directly on words for highly detailed vision. while reading. Somatosensory A distorted map of the Lips and hands appear homunculus body in the brain’s larger due to high somatosensory cortex. sensitivity. Mechanoreceptors Sensory receptors responsive Detecting touch or vibration to mechanical pressure or on the skin. distortion. Nociceptors Sensory receptors that detect Alerting the brain to tissue pain. damage from a burn. Gate control theory Suggests that input from Rubbing your elbow after touch fibers can interfere with hitting it reduces the pain. pain signals, reducing the perception of pain. Gustation The sense of taste. Tasting sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami flavors. Gestalt principles Rules the brain uses to Seeing a series of dots as a organize sensory information continuous line. into whole. Iris The colored part of the eye Expands in dim light to let  that controls the size of the more light in. pupil. Lens The clear structure behind the Changes shape to help you pupil that bends light to focus see objects up close or far it on the retina. away. Monocular cue Depth cue that only requires Objects appear smaller as one eye. they get farther away. Motion parallax A depth cue where closer Nearby trees move quickly objects appear to move faster past the car, mountains move than distant ones. slowly. Olfaction The sense of smell. Smelling fresh bread baking. Olfactory bulb The brain structure that Activated when you smell processes smell signals from flowers. the nose. Olfactory nerve The nerve that carries smell Transmits the scent of information to the brain. cinnamon from your nose to your brain. Opponent process theory Theory that we perceive color Staring at green then seeing in terms of opposing channels red in an afterimage. (red-green, blue-yellow). Optic nerve The nerve that carries visual Transmits signals that allow information from the retina to you to see. the brain. Pupil The opening in the center of Dilates in darkness to allow the iris that allows light to more light in. enter the eye. Retina A layer of visual processing Contains rods and cones that cells at the back of the eye. detect light. Retinal disparity A binocular depth cue based Used to perceive depth in 3D on the difference in images movies. between the two eyes. Rod Photoreceptor specialized to Helps you see in the dark. detect dim light. Taste bud A sensory receptor that Detects sweetness in a detects taste on the tongue. lollipop. Transduction The translation of sensory Converting sound waves into stimuli into neural signals. electrical signals in the ear. Trichromatic theory Theory that color vision is Explains how we see purple based on the activity of three by combining red and blue cone types sensitive to red, cone activity. green, or blue. Vestibular system The sensory system that Helps maintain balance while provides information about riding a bike. body position and movement. Vision The sense that processes Seeing a sunset. reflected light. Synesthesia A condition where Seeing colors when hearing stimulation of one sense leads music. to automatic experiences in another sense. Temporal pathway (ventral The 'what' visual pathway Recognizing your friend's stream) involved in object face. recognition. Parietal pathway (dorsal The 'where' visual pathway Tracking a moving ball. stream) involved in spatial awareness and movement. Split brain A condition resulting from A person can name objects surgery that severs the corpus seen in the right visual field callosum, isolating brain but not the left. hemispheres. Contralateral organization The organization where each The left hemisphere processes hemisphere of the brain input from the right visual processes sensory input from field. the opposite side of the body. Chapter 11 Definition Example Critical and sensitive Specific time windows in Language acquisition is best periods development where certain during early childhood, a experiences are necessary for sensitive period. typical development (critical) or where they have a stronger effect (sensitive). Continuity vs. discontinuity Debate over whether Language may develop  development is gradual and gradually (continuity), but continuous (like a ramp) or learning to walk often feels abrupt and stage-like (like sudden (discontinuity). stairs). Heredity vs. heritability Heredity is the genetic Heredity gives you your eye transmission of traits; color; heritability estimates heritability is a statistical how much eye color varies estimate of how much due to genes in a population. variation in a trait within a population is due to genetic differences. Schemas Mental structures that help us A child’s schema for 'dog' organize and understand may include four legs and fur. information. Accommodation Changing existing schemas to Realizing a cat is not a dog incorporate new information. and adjusting the 'dog' schema. Assimilation Fitting new information into Calling a zebra a 'horse' when existing schemas. first seeing one. Equilibration The balance between A child learns zebras are assimilation and different from horses and accommodation to create creates a new schema. stable understanding. Sensorimotor stage Piaget’s stage from birth to 2 Babies learn by grasping and years where infants learn tasting objects. through senses and movement. Object permanence Understanding that objects A baby searching for a toy continue to exist even when hidden under a blanket shows not seen. object permanence. Primary, secondary, and Repetitive behaviors by Kicking legs (primary), tertiary circular reactions infants exploring their bodies shaking a rattle (secondary), (primary), objects trying different angles to drop (secondary), or experimenting it (tertiary). with new outcomes (tertiary). Preoperational stage Piaget’s stage from 2 to 6 Children believe the moon years where children use follows them or struggle with symbols and language but the idea that others see  lack logical reasoning. differently. Longitudinal study A study that follows the same Tracking a group of children individuals over a long period from kindergarten through of time. high school. Cross-sectional study A study that compares Comparing 6-year-olds, individuals of different ages 10-year-olds, and at one point in time. 14-year-olds on memory performance. Egocentrism Inability to take the A child assumes you see what perspective of others, typical they see even if your view is in Piaget’s preoperational blocked. stage. Conservation Understanding that properties Knowing that pouring water like volume and number into a taller glass doesn’t remain the same despite increase its amount. changes in form. Concrete operational stage Piaget’s stage from 6 to 12 Children can now solve years where children gain conservation problems and logical reasoning about understand math operations. concrete events. Formal operational stage Piaget’s stage from 12 years Teens can think about justice and up where individuals or hypothetical science develop abstract and problems. hypothetical thinking. Theory of mind (ToM) Understanding that others Knowing someone might not have thoughts and feelings know what you know about a different from one's own. hidden toy. False belief test A test of theory of mind to A child passes the test if they see if a child understands that understand Sally will look for someone else can hold a her ball where she left it, not belief that is false. where it was moved. Attachment An emotional bond between A securely attached child is infant and caregiver. distressed when the caregiver leaves and comforted when they return. Secure attachment A style of attachment where a The child is distressed when child is confident that their the caregiver leaves but easily  caregiver will return and comforted on return. soothe them. Insecure attachment A style of attachment The child may avoid the reflecting anxiety or caregiver or be extremely avoidance of the caregiver. upset and hard to comfort. Parenting styles Patterns of parenting Authoritative parents behaviors, typically classified combine warmth with as authoritative, authoritarian, discipline, often leading to permissive, or uninvolved. the best outcomes. Erikson’s psychosocial A theory proposing eight Adolescents face the theory of development stages of social development challenge of identity vs. role across the lifespan, each with confusion. its own conflict. Zone of proximal Vygotsky’s concept of the A child can't solve a puzzle development range between what a child alone but can with guidance. can do alone and what they can do with help. Scaffolding Support provided to help a A teacher models a math learner master a task, which is problem, then slowly lets the gradually removed as student take over. competence increases. Preferential looking A research method where Infants look longer at novel technique infants’ preferences are or facelike patterns. inferred from how long they look at a stimulus. Orienting reflex A tendency to pay more An infant turns their head attention to novel stimuli. toward a new sound or light. Synaptic pruning The elimination of unused Occurs during childhood to neurons and synapses to refine neural connections improve brain efficiency. based on experience. Chapter 8 Definition Example Learning A relatively permanent Learning to ride a bike after change in behavior or repeated practice. capacity for behavior due to experience. Instincts Inborn patterns of behavior A mother dog instinctively elicited by environmental licking her puppies after  stimuli; also called fixed birth. action patterns. Classical conditioning Learning in which A dog learns to salivate when associations are formed hearing a bell that predicts between two stimuli that food. occur sequentially in time. Operant conditioning Learning in which A student studies hard and associations are formed receives praise, making between behaviors and their studying more likely in the outcomes. future. Habituation Decreased response to a Getting used to a loud fan repeated, unchanging, and running in your room. harmless stimulus. Sensitization Increased reaction to a range Being jumpy after a loud of stimuli following exposure bang during an earthquake. to a strong stimulus. Unconditioned stimulus A stimulus that elicits a The smell of food causes (UCS) response without prior salivation. experience. Unconditioned response A natural, unlearned reaction Salivating in response to (UCR) to an unconditioned stimulus. food. Conditioned stimulus (CS) A previously neutral stimulus A bell that predicts food. that acquires significance through conditioning. Conditioned response (CR) A learned response to a Salivating when hearing the conditioned stimulus. bell. Acquisition The development of a learned A dog starts salivating when a response through pairing of bell precedes food. stimuli. Extinction The reduction of a learned A dog stops salivating to the response when the bell if food no longer follows unconditioned stimulus no it. longer follows the conditioned stimulus. Spontaneous recovery The reappearance of a A dog salivates to the bell conditioned response after a again after a pause in rest period following extinction training.  extinction. Generalization The tendency to respond to Fearing all dogs after being stimuli similar to a bitten by one. conditioned stimulus. Discrimination The learned ability to Fearing a specific dog that bit distinguish between similar you but not all dogs. stimuli. Taste aversion A form of classical Avoiding seafood after conditioning where a subject getting food poisoning from learns to avoid food that shrimp. causes illness. Biological preparedness The tendency for animals to Humans quickly learn to fear be predisposed to form snakes more easily than associations between certain flowers. stimuli and responses. Rescorla-Wagner model A model stating that learning More learning happens early occurs as a function of how on when the CS-UCS pairing surprising the association is unexpected. between CS and UCS is. Higher-order (or Learning in which a stimulus A child fears a dog, and now second-order) conditioning associated with a CS also fears a doghouse too. elicits a CR. Latent inhibition Slower learning when the CS You’re less likely to associate is familiar compared to when illness with a familiar food it's new. like pizza than with a new food. Law of effect Behaviors followed by A cat learns to escape a box pleasant outcomes are more faster after being rewarded likely to occur again. with food. Positive reinforcement Adding a pleasant stimulus to Giving a dog a treat for increase behavior. sitting. Negative reinforcement Removing an unpleasant Taking aspirin to remove a stimulus to increase behavior. headache. Positive punishment Adding an unpleasant Getting a speeding ticket to stimulus to decrease behavior. reduce reckless driving. Negative punishment Removing a pleasant stimulus Taking away a phone for  to decrease behavior. missing curfew. Primary reinforcer A stimulus that is naturally Food, water, warmth. rewarding. Secondary (or conditioned) A stimulus that gains value Money or grades. reinforcer through learning. Premack principle Using a more preferred Allowing video games only activity to reinforce a less after finishing homework. preferred one. Shaping Reinforcing successive steps Rewarding a child each time toward a desired behavior. they get closer to tying their shoes correctly. Partial reinforcement Reinforcing a behavior only Giving a dog a treat every some of the time. third time it sits. Fixed ratio schedule Reinforcement after a set A worker earns a bonus for number of responses. every 10 items produced. Fixed interval schedule Reinforcement after a set Weekly paycheck. period of time. Variable ratio schedule Reinforcement after a Slot machine payouts. variable number of responses. Variable interval schedule Reinforcement after varying Checking for text messages at time intervals. random times and sometimes getting a reply. Biological constraints Limits on learning imposed A raccoon struggles to drop by an animal’s biology. coins into a container due to instinctive food-washing behavior. Instinctive drift Tendency for learned A trained pig begins rooting behaviors to revert to instead of placing coins in a instinctive ones. slot. Latent learning Learning that occurs without A rat learns a maze but only reinforcement and is not shows it when food is present. demonstrated until there's motivation. Observational Learning by watching others A child learns to brush teeth learning/social learning (modeling). by watching a parent. theory Chapter 9 Definition Example Encoding The process of acquiring Typing notes into your laptop information and transferring during a lecture. it into memory. Storage The retention of encoded Keeping those typed notes in information over time. your computer's memory. Retrieval The recovery of stored Opening the document and information when it is reading your notes during needed. exam prep. Multi-store model of A model suggesting memory Remembering a phone memory flows through sensory, number involves hearing it short-term, and long-term (sensory), rehearsing it stores. (short-term), and storing it (long-term). Sensory memory The first stage that holds large Seeing the image of a amounts of data for a brief sparkler trail even after it’s time. gone. Iconic memory Sensory memory for visual A brief visual trace of a letter information. grid shown for a split second. Echoic memory Sensory memory for auditory Recalling what someone just information. said a moment ago. Short-term memory Holds a small amount of Temporarily remembering a information for a short shopping list. duration. Chunking Grouping similar or Remembering phone numbers meaningful information as 416-555-1234 instead of together. 4165551234. Working memory An adaptation of short-term Solving a math problem in memory involving active your head while remembering manipulation of information. the steps. Central executive The component of working Focusing on reading while memory that manages filtering out background attention and coordinates noise. other subsystems. Visuospatial sketchpad Stores and manipulates visual Imagining the route from and spatial information. school to home. Phonological loop Holds verbal and auditory Repeat a phone number to information. yourself until you dial it. Episodic buffer Combines information from Recalling a conversation different sources into a single along with the room it episode. occurred in. Maintenance rehearsal Repeating information to Saying a phone number over keep it in short-term memory. and over before dialing. Elaborative rehearsal Linking new information to Relating a new concept in existing memories for better class to your own life retention. experiences. Levels of processing theory Suggests that deeper Remembering a word is better processing leads to better when you think about its memory. meaning rather than just its appearance. Long-term memory (LTM) The final memory stage that Remembering how to ride a stores information bike even after years of not permanently. riding. Declarative (or explicit) Conscious memories that can Remembering the capital of memory be verbalized, such as facts France or your last birthday and experiences. party. Nondeclarative (or implicit) Unconscious memories, such Riding a bicycle or salivating memory as skills or conditioned at the smell of food. responses. Episodic memory A type of declarative memory Recalling your first day of for personal experiences. school. Semantic memory A type of declarative memory Knowing that Paris is the for factual knowledge. capital of France. Autobiographical memory Blended memory of episodic Remembering when you and semantic content related graduated and the name of to one's life. your high school. Highly superior A rare condition where Remembering what happened autobiographical memory individuals can recall on any specific date years (HSAM) personal past events in great ago. detail. Procedural memory A type of nondeclarative Knowing how to swim or memory for how to carry out play the piano. skilled movement. Priming A change in response to a Faster recognition of the word stimulus due to prior 'nurse' after seeing 'doctor'. exposure to a related stimulus. Retrieval cue Stimuli that help access Smelling a certain perfume information in long-term triggers a memory of your memory. grandmother. Encoding specificity Memory is improved when You recall a fact better in the principle information available at same room where you studied encoding is also available at it. retrieval. Context-dependent memory Improved recall when the Better test performance in the context during encoding same classroom where you matches retrieval. studied. State-dependent memory Recall is better when your Recalling sad memories more internal state at retrieval easily when feeling sad. matches encoding. Spreading activation model Memory retrieval occurs Thinking of 'red' makes it through spreading activation easier to recall 'apple' or 'fire between related concepts in a truck'. semantic network. Schemas Mental frameworks that help Expecting a restaurant to have organize and interpret menus and waiters. information. Serial position effect Tendency to remember the Recalling the first and last first and last items in a list groceries on a long list. best. Primacy effect Better recall for the first items Remembering the first few in a list due to rehearsal and vocabulary words from a transfer to long-term memory. study list. Recency effect Better recall for the last items Recalling the last items on a in a list due to availability in grocery list immediately after short-term memory. seeing it. Absentmindedness Forgetting where you place  things. Decay Fading of memory over time Forgetting details of a movie if not accessed or used. you saw last year. Proactive interference Older memories interfere Calling your new partner by with retrieval of newer your ex’s name. information. Retroactive interference Newer memories interfere Learning a new phone with the retrieval of older number makes it harder to information. remember your old one. Mnemonics Memory aids or strategies Using 'HOMES' to remember that enhance recall through the Great Lakes: Huron, organization or imagery. Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior. Method of loci A mnemonic technique using Visualizing a grocery list spatial memory by placed in different rooms of associating items with your house. locations in a familiar place. Chapter 10 Definition Example Broca’s area A region in the frontal lobe Damage to Broca’s area leads involved in speech to difficulty forming speech, production. known as Broca’s aphasia. Wernicke’s area A region in the temporal lobe Damage to Wernicke’s area involved in language results in fluent but comprehension. nonsensical speech, known as Wernicke’s aphasia. Non-fluent (or Broca's) A condition where A person speaks slowly and aphasia individuals have trouble with effort, omitting small producing speech but can words like 'is' or 'the'. understand language. Fluent (or Wernicke's) A condition where A person speaks in long aphasia individuals produce speech sentences with made-up fluently but the content lacks words and doesn’t realize meaning. others can't understand them. Bilingualism/multilingualis The ability to speak two or A child raised in both English m more languages. and French environments is bilingual. Linguistic determinism The idea that language If a language lacks a word for determines the way we think. a concept, speakers may struggle to think about that concept. Linguistic relativism The idea that language Speakers of different influences but does not languages may focus on determine our thinking. different aspects of an experience, such as time or space. Cognition The internal mental processes Solving a logic puzzle including thinking, reasoning, involves cognition. and problem solving. Analogical representation A mental representation that A mental image of your maintains some bedroom layout. characteristics of the actual object. Symbolic representation A mental representation that The word 'cat' does not look bears no resemblance to the or sound like an actual cat. actual object. Concept A mental grouping of similar The concept of 'fruit' includes objects, events, or people. apples, bananas, and oranges. Defining attributes (or Assumes each concept has a A triangle must have three classic categorization) list of features essential for sides. models membership. Prototype model A model suggesting we You compare a new bird to categorize items by your mental image of a robin. comparing them to an ideal or average representation. Exemplar model A model where we compare You recognize a dog by new stimuli with all stored recalling all the different dogs examples in a category. you've seen. Taxonomic (Western) vs. Taxonomic uses categories Grouping 'cow' and 'horse' thematic (Eastern) based on shared features; (taxonomic) vs. 'cow' and categorization strategies thematic based on 'milk' (thematic). relationships or contexts. Analytic (Western) vs. Analytic focuses on objects Analytic: separating a fish holistic (Eastern) thinking and rules; holistic considers from water. Holistic: seeing styles relationships and context. the fish as part of an aquarium. Reasoning; deductive and Deductive reasoning moves Deductive: All humans are inductive reasoning from general to specific; mortal, so Socrates is mortal. inductive from specific to Inductive: Observing many general. swans are white, you conclude all swans are white. Decision making Choosing between Deciding which university to alternatives based on values attend based on location and and preferences. cost. The Somatic Marker Hypothesis Satisficers vs. maximizers Satisficers choose 'good A satisficer buys the first pair enough' options; maximizers of shoes that fit; a maximizer seek the best possible option. compares every store for the best price and style. Algorithm A step-by-step method that Following a recipe to bake a guarantees a correct solution. cake. Heuristics Mental shortcuts or rules of Choosing the brand of cereal thumb that simplify decision you always buy instead of making. comparing all options. Availability heuristic Judging the frequency or Thinking plane crashes are probability of an event by common after seeing one in how easily examples come to the news. mind. Representativeness heuristic Judging whether something Assuming someone is a belongs in a category based librarian because they are on how similar it is to the quiet and like books. prototype. Recognition heuristic Choosing the recognized Assuming a familiar brand is option over an unrecognized better than an unknown one. one. Affect heuristic Basing decisions on Avoiding food because it emotional reactions rather looks gross, not because it’s than factual information. unhealthy. Framing effects Decisions are influenced by Choosing a surgery with a how choices are presented. 90% survival rate over one  with a 10% death rate, even though they’re the same. Problem A situation in which a goal Trying to figure out how to must be reached but the open a locked box without a solution is not obvious. key. Problem-solving The process of finding Breaking a large task into solutions to difficult or smaller, manageable steps. complex issues. Mental set A tendency to use past Solving a math problem using solutions that worked instead a familiar formula even when of new approaches. it’s not the best method. Functional fixedness A type of mental block that Not using a coin as a prevents seeing new uses for screwdriver because you only objects. think of it as money. Intelligence The ability to understand Solving math problems and complex ideas, adapt to the learning new languages environment, learn from demonstrate intelligence. experience, and reason effectively. Eugenics A discredited movement Early IQ tests were misused aiming to improve human to justify forced sterilizations. genetics by encouraging reproduction among people with 'desirable' traits. Psychometrics The science of measuring Designing reliable and valid mental capacities and IQ tests. processes. Intelligence quotient (IQ) A score derived from An average IQ score is standardized tests to measure around 100. intelligence. Flynn effect The observed rise in average IQ tests have to be IQ scores over generations. periodically updated due to rising performance over time. General intelligence (g) A single factor that underlies People who do well on performance across a variety vocabulary tests also tend to of mental abilities. do well on math tests. Crystallized intelligence The ability to use learned Solving crossword puzzles  knowledge and experience. using vocabulary knowledge. Fluid intelligence The ability to think logically Solving novel puzzles or without the need for patterns quickly. previously learned knowledge. Normal curve A bell-shaped distribution of IQ scores from a normal scores where most scores fall distribution with most people near the average. scoring around 100. Factor analysis A statistical method used to Revealing that various identify clusters of related cognitive tasks measure a items on a test. general intelligence factor (g). Chapter 12 Definition Example Idiographic approaches Study individuals in depth to A case study of one person’s understand the unique aspects life to understand their traits of their personalities. and motivations. Nomothetic approaches Study personality in large Using Big Five traits to groups to identify general compare thousands of laws or traits. participants’ personalities. Projective measures Assessments using Rorschach Inkblot Test or ambiguous stimuli to uncover Thematic Apperception Test unconscious motives or (TAT). conflicts. Objective measures Assessments using standard The Big Five Inventory or questions with clear scoring MMPI. methods. Psychodynamic theory Freud's theory that Explaining adult anxiety as a personality results from result of unresolved unconscious drives and childhood conflict. childhood experiences. Ego Freud’s component of Choosing to study rather than personality that mediates go out to balance pleasure between the id and superego; and responsibility. the self visible to others. Id Primitive, instinctual part of A toddler screaming when personality that seeks they want candy. immediate gratification. Superego Internalized societal rules and Feeling guilty after lying to a conscience; guides moral friend. behavior. Defence mechanisms Unconscious protective Repression, denial, behaviors to reduce anxiety projection, displacement, from internal conflict. sublimation. Humanistic approaches Theories emphasizing Carl Rogers’s view that personal growth and people thrive in environments self-actualization. of unconditional positive regard. Self-actualization The realization of one's full Pursuing meaningful goals potential; the top of Maslow’s and personal growth. hierarchy. Person-centered Carl Rogers’s approach Therapy that provides emphasizes the individual's empathy and unconditional subjective experience and positive regard. potential for growth. Unconditional positive Accepting and valuing a A therapist supports a client regard person without conditions. regardless of their behavior. Self-concept All the knowledge a person Thinking of yourself as has about themselves. creative, hardworking, and introverted. Self-esteem A person's evaluation of their Feeling proud of your own self-worth. accomplishments boosts your self-esteem. Interdependent Viewing the self as connected Defining yourself as a good self-construal to others; common in daughter or team member. collectivist cultures. Independent self-construal Viewing the self as separate Defining yourself by your from others; common in personal goals and traits. individualist cultures. Reciprocal determinism Bandura’s theory that Being friendly influences personality arises from others to be friendly, interactions between reinforcing sociable behavior. behavior, personal factors, and environment. Self-efficacy Belief in one’s ability to Confidently applying for a  succeed in a specific job because you believe situation. Domain specific. you’re qualified. Self-handicapping Creating obstacles to explain Not studying before an exam potential failure. so you can blame the result on lack of preparation. Self-regulation The ability to control one’s Resisting the urge to check behavior and impulses to your phone while studying. achieve goals. Self-control The capacity to override Choosing a salad over a donut impulses and respond with to stay healthy. reason and reflection. Locus of control A belief about how much Believing success comes control one has over life’s from hard work (internal) vs. outcomes (internal vs. luck (external). external). Delay of gratification Postponing immediate Saving money now to buy a rewards for long-term goals. car later. Personality trait Enduring characteristics that Being consistently sociable or describe an individual’s anxious. behavior. Personality type A category of people sharing Type A personalities are similar personality traits. competitive and time-conscious. Big Five theory A model describing Someone high in personality using five traits: conscientiousness is openness, conscientiousness, organized and dependable. extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Chapter 13 Definition Example Conformity Matching behaviour and Wearing similar clothing as appearance to perceived peers to fit in. social norms. Social norms Rules for behaviour in social Shaking hands when meeting settings. someone. Descriptive social norms What most people actually do Most people leave a tip at in a given situation. restaurants. Prescriptive social norms What people should do in a You should cover your mouth given situation. when you sneeze. Informational influence Conforming because we Following others during a fire believe others have accurate drill assuming they know the information. correct exit. Normative influence Conforming to avoid Agreeing with a group’s rejection or gain approval. opinion to be liked. Compliance Agreeing to a request from a Donating money when asked person with no authority. by a fundraiser. Door-in-the-face Making a large, unreasonable Asking for a $100 donation, request followed by a smaller, then asking for $10. more reasonable one. Foot-in-the-door Making a small request Asking for help carrying one followed by a larger one. box, then asking to help with the whole movie. Low-balling Getting someone to agree to a Agreeing to buy a car, then deal before revealing hidden finding out about extra fees. costs. Obedience Complying with instructions Following a supervisor’s or orders from someone in a directive even if it seems position of authority. unreasonable. Halo effect Tendency to let a general Assuming someone is smart impression of a person because they are attractive. influence specific evaluations. Thin slices of behaviour Quick impressions formed Judging a teacher’s based on a few seconds of effectiveness from a brief observation. video clip. Attributions Explanations for the causes of Explaining someone’s behaviours or events. lateness as forgetfulness or bad traffic. Dispositional attributions Assigning the cause of Assuming someone is rude behaviour to internal traits. because they are a mean person. Situational attributions Assigning the cause of Assuming someone is rude behaviour to external factors. because they’re having a bad  day. Fundamental attribution Tendency to overemphasize Blaming a driver’s anger on error dispositional factors and their personality instead of underestimate situational traffic stress. ones. Correspondence bias Believing someone’s Assuming someone’s silence behaviour reflects their means they’re unfriendly, not personality even when it shy. could be explained by the situation. Actor-observer bias Attributing our own actions to Saying you tripped because situations but others’ actions the floor was uneven, but to their dispositions. someone else tripped because they’re clumsy. Self-serving bias Attributing successes to Taking credit for a good grade oneself and failures to but blaming the teacher for a external factors. bad one. Stereotypes Simplified sets of traits Assuming all engineers are associated with group introverted. membership. Prejudice A negative attitude toward a Disliking someone because of group of people based on their ethnicity. their membership. Discrimination Unfair behaviour toward Not hiring someone because individuals based on their of their religion. group membership. Bystander effect People are less likely to help No one calls 911 during an when others are present. emergency in a crowd because they assume someone else will. Diffusion of responsibility The assumption that others Not reporting a spill in a will take action, leading hallway because you assume individuals to avoid someone else will. responsibility. Audience inhibition Fear of judgment prevents Not helping someone faint in people from acting in front of class because you’re afraid of others. looking wrong. Groupthink When group members A team agrees on a risky suppress dissenting opinions business move without for harmony. critical discussion to avoid conflict. Social facilitation Improved performance on Running faster when people simple tasks in the presence are watching. of others. Social loafing Reduced effort when working Putting in less effort during a in a group compared to alone. group project than a solo one. Deindividuation Loss of self-awareness in Shouting or vandalizing groups, leading to impulsive during a large protest. behaviour. Chapter 14 Definition Example Psychological disorders Clinically significant Major depressive disorder, disturbances in cognition, schizophrenia, or anxiety emotion regulation, or disorders. behaviour indicating dysfunction in mental functioning. Biopsychosocial model A model that integrates Depression may result from biological, psychological, and genetic predisposition, social-cultural factors to negative thinking, and social explain mental health isolation. conditions. Evidence-based practice Using clinical expertise, Treating depression with patient values, and the best cognitive behavioural therapy research evidence to guide (CBT) supported by research. decisions in mental health care. Comorbidity When more than one A person having both anxiety psychological disorder occurs and depression. in the same person. Abnormal behaviour Behaviour that is distressing, Compulsive hand washing harmful to self or others, and that interferes with daily life. deviant from cultural norms. Diathesis-stress model Suggests disorders develop A person with genetic risk for from genetic or other depression develops the  vulnerabilities combined with disorder after a breakup. environmental stress. Psychoanalytic/psychodyna Therapies focusing on Exploring early childhood mic therapy unconscious processes and experiences to understand unresolved past conflicts. current anxiety. Person/Client-centered A humanistic therapy focused Therapists actively listen therapy on empathy, unconditional without judgment to help positive regard, and the clients grow. client’s perspective. Cognitive behavioural A structured therapy that Challenging distorted therapy helps patients recognize and thinking to treat social change negative thought anxiety. patterns and behaviours. Psychotropic The use of drugs to manage SSRIs prescribed to treat medication/pharmacothera symptoms of mental depression. py disorders. Neurodevelopmental Disorders that begin in Autism spectrum disorder and disorders childhood and affect ADHD. development, often involving impairments in social, academic, or occupational functioning. Autism spectrum disorder A developmental disorder A child with ASD avoids eye (ASD) characterized by deficits in contact and engages in social communication and repetitive hand-flapping. restricted, repetitive behaviours. Attention deficit Characterized by inattention, A student has difficulty hyperactivity disorder hyperactivity, and staying focused and interrupts (ADHD) impulsivity. others frequently. Schizophrenia spectrum Severe disorders with A person believes they are and other psychotic distorted thinking, perception, being monitored by aliens disorders and emotions, often including (delusion). delusions and hallucinations. Positive symptoms Excesses or distortions such Hearing voices that aren’t as hallucinations or delusions. there. Negative symptoms Deficits in functioning such Speaking very little and  as flat affect, lack of showing no emotion. motivation, or social withdrawal. Mood disorders Disorders involving Includes major depressive significant disturbances in disorder and bipolar disorder. mood. Major depressive disorder Characterized by persistent Losing interest in activities sadness, lack of interest, and and feeling hopeless most of other cognitive and physical the time. symptoms. Depressive attributional A tendency to attribute Believing a failed test means style negative events to internal, you’re generally incompetent. stable, and global causes. Cognitive triad Beck’s theory that depression Thinking 'I'm worthless, life involves negative views of is unfair, and things will the self, the world, and the never get better.' future. Bipolar disorder A mood disorder A person feels euphoric and characterized by alternating invincible for a week, then periods of depression and experiences deep sadness and mania. fatigue. Mania/manic episode A period of abnormally Feeling euphoric, talking elevated mood, energy, and rapidly, and not sleeping for activity. days. Electroconvulsive therapy A biomedical treatment for Used when other treatments severe depression that for depression have failed. involves electrically induced seizures. Deep brain stimulation A technique involving the Used for treatment-resistant implantation of electrodes to depression or Parkinson’s treat neurological and disease. psychiatric conditions. Anxiety disorders A group of disorders Includes phobias, panic characterized by excessive disorder, and generalized fear or anxiety. anxiety disorder. Generalized anxiety Chronic and excessive worry Constantly worrying about disorder not tied to specific threats. work, health, and finances for  no clear reason. Specific phobias Excessive fear of specific An intense fear of spiders or objects or situations. heights. Panic disorder Recurrent and unexpected Sudden intense fear with panic attacks along with fear heart racing and shortness of of future attacks. breath. Agoraphobia Fear of situations where Avoiding crowded places or escape may be difficult or public transportation. help unavailable in a panic attack. Social anxiety disorder Intense fear of social Avoiding public speaking or situations and being judged meeting new people due to by others. fear of embarrassment. Obsessive compulsive A disorder marked by Constantly washing hands to disorder intrusive thoughts reduce fear of contamination. (obsessions) and repetitive behaviours (compulsions). Obsessions Intrusive and unwanted Repeated thoughts about thoughts or urges. germs or harming someone. Compulsions Repetitive behaviours Checking the door multiple performed to reduce anxiety times to ensure it's locked. caused by obsessions.