Psychology 313 Exam 1 PDF

1 social influence ❖ social influence social influence → the many ways people affect one another, including changes in attitudes, beliefs, feelings, & behavior resulting from the comments, actions, or mere presence of others...

1 social influence ❖ social influence social influence → the many ways people affect one another, including changes in attitudes, beliefs, feelings, & behavior resulting from the comments, actions, or mere presence of others ex. fashion trends, peer pressure, getting a favor, following orders, etc. 3 key forms of social influence (interrelated) conformity → changing one's beliefs or behavior to more closely align w/ those of others, in response to explicit or implicit pressure to do so (pressure can be real or imagined) (about norms) 2 mechanisms: ◆ explicit ◆ implicit 2 levels: ◆ real ◆ imagined like an imagined trend that you follow tho it doesn't actually exist, you just think it does conformity can be bad, good, or neutral automatic mimicry: nonconscious conformity → tendency to mindlessly/subconsciously imitate other people's behavior & movements ◆ why we do this: merely thinking about a behavior makes doing it more likely thus when we see others act in a certain way, the behavior is brought to mind which makes us more likely to behave that way ourselves when we see others behave in a certain way, we are more likely to act in the same way ◆ most likely to mimic: tendency to mimic others is strongest when we feel a need to affiliate w/ others & when these others are well-liked ◆ what mimicry can lead to: it can make you more liked → people tend to like those who mimic them more than they like those who don't (even when unaware of being mimicked) more mimicry → people who are mimicked engage in more prosocial behavior afterward can build social bonds, which leads to more pleasant social interactions ◆ synchronous mimicry: can create particularly powerful feelings of closeness & bonding informational social influence → when other people influence your thinking or behaviors through the information they provide ◆ the influence of other people that results from the reliance on their comments & actions as an indication of what’s likely to be correct, proper, or effective ◆ more likely when: the situation is ambiguous or difficult  2 we feel low in knowledge or competence about the topic/subject ◆ leads to internalization → private acceptance of the position ◆ informational social influence & Sherif's conformity experiment Sherif studied how other people can serve as a social frame of reference to change our perception of reality used autokinetic illusion (stationary point of light appears to move in a dark room) to assess group influence had them estimate alone & then in a group ◆ people's estimates tended to converge over time ◆ argued that everyone's individual judgments fused into a group norm that influenced how far participants saw the light move in sherif's laser task, the answer was unclear, so participants were using information from their peers to make a correct answer normative social influence → the influence of other people that comes from the desire to avoid their disapproval & other social sanctions ◆ based on wanting to fit in ◆ people are often reluctant to depart from the norms of society, or at least the norms of the groups they care most about, bc they fear the social consequences ◆ often has a greater impact on public compliance than on private acceptance (no internalization) ◆ normative social influence & Asch's conformity experiment (1956) studied conformity when there is a clear conflict btw a person's own position & the viewpoint of the group task: determining which of 3 lines was the same length as the target line in a group of 8 male participants, there were 7 confederates who gave wrong answers & 1 true participant participants conformed w/ the 7 confederate's wrong answer ⅓ of the time 75% of participants conformed at least once in Asch's line task, the answer was clear, so participants must have been acting from a social drive not be deviant from the group factors affecting conformity ◆ group size as group size increases, conformity increases – only up to a group size of 3 or 4, after that, conformity levels off ◆ group unanimity more conformity when the group is unanimous presence of at least one ally (who breaks the unanimity) weakens both informational & normative social influence → conformity rates decrease does not have to give the correct answer – just something other than the other people's answer (what matters is the break in unanimity)  3 ◆ anonymity eliminates normative social influence → reduces conformity ◆ expertise & status experts exert more informational social influence high status exerts more normative social influence ◆ culture interdependent vs. independent cultures more conformity in interdependent cultures less conformity in independent cultures people in interdependent cultures are more likely to be susceptible to informational social influence (they consider the actions & opinions of others to be very telling) & normative social influence (they consider the high regard of others to be very important) tight vs. loose cultures more conformity in tight cultures less conformity in loose cultures reason → bc norms aren't as strong, people tolerate more deviance when do we conform less: ◆ when we understand the reasons for other people's behavior ◆ when we have an obvious explanation for why we have a deviant opinion if we can pinpoint a reason why our opinions are different, both informational influence & normative social influence weaken conformity & construals: ◆ conformity is affected by our construals → we respond to subjective interpretations (construals) of situations, not the objective situations minority opinion can change the majority opinion: ◆ when minority opinion is consistent & clear ◆ through informational social influence ◆ when not seen as acting out of self-interest ◆ when believed to have a reason for diverging from majority opinion how conformity shapes identity: ◆ informational social influence → internalized internal(ize) motivations → intrinsic conformity ex. im masculine bc its how I like to act ◆ normative social influence → NOT internalized external(ize) motivations → extrinsic cconformity ex. im masculine bc its how other people think I should act extrinsic conformity leads to more efforts to prove their conformity if their membership in that group is threatened ◆ study on conformity & gender identity (dr. stanaland) experimental manipulation → eliciting motivation to prove one's manhood or womanhood hypothesis → men who are extrinsically motivated (pressured) to conform will exhibit the most agressive cognition in order to prove their manhood hypothesis was supported  4 extrinsic (social) conformity → extrinsically motivated identity → extrinsic attempts to prove conformity (ex. aggression) compliance → responding favorably to an explicit request by another person (regardless of that person's status) key feature is that the behavior has to come in response to a request from another person or people ex. doing a favor, giving to charity, buying a product door-in-the-face technique → a compliance approach that involves asking someone for a very large favor that will certainly be refused & then following that request w/ one for a smaller favor (which tends to be seen as a compromise the target feels compelled to honor) ◆ large request → small request works bc: large request makes the small request seem more reasonable people don't like to be disagreeable norm of reciprocity ◆ does not work when the 2 requests are made by different people foot-in-the-door technique → a compliance approach that involves making an initial small request w/ which nearly everyone complies, followed by a larger request involving the real behavior of interest ◆ small request → larger request works bc: compliance w/ a small request leads to a change in that person's self image as someone who does this sort of thing → thus has a reason for agreeing to the subsequent larger request getting someone to agree to something small makes it easier to get them to agree to something larger norm-based compliance ◆ informing people about social norms – telling them others are doing it most effective when the information is surprising (when people have misunderstood the norm) ◆ pluralistic ignorance → misperception of a group norm that results from observing people who are acting at variance w/ their private beliefs, which serves to reinforce the erroneous group norm the tendency to act in ways that conflict w/ their true attitudes or beliefs bc they believe others don't share them ◆ norm of reciprocity → a norm dictating that people should provide benefits to those who benefit them if you do something nice for someone, that person will be more likely to agree to a reasonable request you subsequently make obedience → in an unequal power relationship, submitting to the demands of the person in authority milgram obedience study ◆ participants were told the experiment was on learning (when really it was about obedience) ◆ the participant was always the teacher, confederate was the learner  5 ◆ participants gave electric shocks (starting at 15 volts – up to 450) when the learner got the word pair wrong, each time the reality was no shocks were actually delivered ◆ during the experiment, the accomplice screamed in pain & demanded that the experiment end at that point, experimenter (wearing a white lab coat) instructed participant to continue ◆ hypothesized that fewer than 1% of people would go to the end ◆ 62.5% of participants completed the experiment same effects found for women & men ◆ example of the power of the situation ❖ random principles I had in my notes principle of consistency principle of scarcity principle of reciprocity principle of authority ——————————————————————————————————————————————— persuasion ❖ social influence vs. persuasion social influence is a broad set of phenomena that can happen intentionally or unintentionally persuasion is a specific type of social influence that is the intentional changing of beliefs/actions ❖ elaboration likelihood model (ELM) (Petty & Cacioppo) → 2 routes of persuasion central route of persuasion → when people think carefully & deliberately about the content of a persuasive message messages that encourage people to think carefully & deliberately logic, strength of arguments, evidence & principles rely on relevant info of their own (ex. experiences, knowledge) motivation & ability factors (occurs when:) issue is personally relevant (gives you motivation) person is knowledgeable in domain have sufficient cognitive resources & time factors promoting attitude change quality of argument (strength of arg.) peripheral route of persuasion → when people attend to relatively easy-to-process, superficial cues related to a persuasive message; occurs w/o engaging in much thought messages that leverage peripheral aspects (superficial, easy-to-process features) motivation & ability factors (occurs when:) issue is not personally relevant person is distracted or tired message is incomplete or hard to understand arguments are presented too quickly factors promoting attitude change source attractiveness, fame, expertise number & length of arguments consensus easy-to-process cues  6 ❖ roles of motivation & ability 2 factors that determine whether something is processed through the central vs. peripheral route motivation must be motivated (to engage in in-depth processing) ability must be able to engage in in-depth processing if either or both are lacking → peripheral route ❖ for long-lasting attitude change, persuasion through the central route is better ❖ elements of persuasion (3 components) who → source of message source characteristics → characteristics of the person who delivers a persuasive message attractiveness ◆ attractiveness persuades people (through the peripheral route) particularly persuasive when the message isn't personally important & when people aren't knowledgeable about the subject credibility ◆ credibility of a message's source can change opinions under circumstances that lead to the peripheral route to persuasion persuasive bc they seem expert & trustworthy ◆ source credibility also affects when audience is motivated & thinking clearly → moves them in favor of the argument the source is endorsing ◆ people who are seen as knowledgable & trustworthy are seen as more persuasive ◆ sleeper effect → when a persuasive message from an unreliable source initially exerts little influence but later causes attitudes to shift over time, people dissociate the source of the message from the message itself certainty ◆ being certain & confident makes your message seem more persuasive bc people tend to judge certain & confident sources as more credible what → content of message quality high-quality arguments are more persuasive (esp. on central route) messages are more persuasive when: ◆ they appeal to the audience's core values ◆ they're straightforward, logical, clear ◆ sources argue against their own self-interest source of the message is seen as more sincere explicit more attitude change will result if the conclusions are explicit in the message vivid when info is vivid (colorful, interesting, scary, memorable), it tends to be more effective/persuasive ◆ fear-eliciting/scare tactics are persuasive, but especially so when they also provide information about how to address the source of the fear ex. scary info abt smoking + pamphlet on how to stop smoking  7 identifiable victim effect → the tendency to be more moved by the vivid plight of a single, identifiable, individual than by the struggles of a more abstract # of people ◆ does not work when the victim can be blamed for the situation culture important to tailor a message to fit the norms & values of the cultural group that makes up the audience whom → intended audience of message need for cognition (degree to which they like to think deeply abt things) high need for cognition → central route & high-quality arguments are more effective low need for cognition → peripheral & easy to process messages are more effective mood messages are more persuasive when they match the mood of the audience guilt can increase compliance w/ a persuasive message → as long as the message offers a way to get rid of the guilt age younger people are more persuadable than older people ◆ esp. w/ peripheral messages ❖ static & dynamic norms dynamic norms are more persuasive than static norms → highlight that norms are changing more likely to agree if you tell them the trend of the norm than just the fact of the norm (ex. 35% of ….) dynamic norm – norm that is changing (trend) ❖ descriptive & prescriptive norms descriptive norms → the behavior exhibited by most people in a given context prescriptive norms (injunctive norms) → the way a person is supposed to behave in a given context (uses the word "should") problem of reactance → a motivational reaction that occurs when a person's freedom is threatened or restricted; they reassert their prerogatives/rights people experience an unpleasant state of arousal when they believe their free will is threatened, & they often act to reduce this discomfort by reasserting their prerogatives to increase compliance & get people to adhere to a prescriptive norm, these 2 norms should not be placed in conflict w/ each other should be aligned w/ one another ❖ mood & compliance positive moods & compliance our mood shapes how we interpret events we are more likely to view requests for favors as less intrusive & less threatening when we're in a good mood mood maintenance (wanting to maintain a good/positive mood) people want to maintain a positive mood, so they agree more easily when in a positive mood doing something good for someone helps prolong the good feeling (which we want to continue) negative moods & compliance certain types of bad moods increase compliance guilt → strong association btw guilt & compliance  8 more obligated to help someone if we feel guilty when people feel guilty they are more motivated to get rid of that feeling & thus comply negative-state relief hypothesis → the idea that people engage in certain actions (ex. agreeing to a request) to relieve their negative feelings & feel better about themselves ❖ the media & persuasion the media has a powerful effect on our beliefs & attitudes agenda control → efforts of the media to select certain events & topics to emphasize, thereby shaping which issues & events people think are important media representations DO NOT resemble reality men are overrepresented (3x) children, elderly, racial minorities, & low-income people are underrepresented consequences of misrepresentation (over & under) can warp your perception of the world ◆ heavy tv watchers: endorse more racial & gender stereotypes overestimate the prevalence of violence & crime & # of professionals in the pop. perceptions of bias in the media hostile media phenomenon → the tendency for people to see media coverage as biased against their own side & in favor of their opponent's side misinformation & the media increase in fake news in the media in the past decade misinformation can influence people to make incorrect/misguided decisions ❖ resistance to persuasion attentional bias we sometimes respond selectively to info in a way that maintains our initial stance selective evaluation people tend to evaluate info in biased ways that support their existing beliefs & values selective framing we tend to selectively frame issues in a manner that shines a more positive light on positions we support & a more negative light on positions we oppose previous commitments social identities, public commitments previous commitments & public commitments make it easier to resist persuasion thought polarization if you've thought about something more, you'll have a more extreme opinion that's more resistant to change hypothesis that more extended thought about a particular issue tends to produce a more extreme, entrenched attitude knowledge more knowledge → more well-developed counterarguments → more resistance selective attention people tune in to info that confirms their original attitudes & tune out info that contradicts them can lead to echo chambers → an environment where a person only encounters information or opinions that reflect & reinforce their own moral conviction  9 attitudes that are grounded in fundamental beliefs about what is right & wrong are particularly resistant to persuasion less willing to compromise on them moral reframing framing a position in terms of the moral principles that the target audience values ◆ can be helpful in persuasion attitude innoculation small attacks on people's beliefs that engage their preexisting attitudes, prior commitments, & background knowledge, enabling them to counteract a subsequent larger attack & thus resist persuasion similar to inoculation against a virus ◆ can help people resist persuasive attempts because initial small attacks give them the chance to muster arguments that can be used when faced with stronger attacks on their beliefs & attitudes ◆ exposing people to weak arguments against their position & allowing them to generate arguments to counter that opposing view ——————————————————————————————————————————————— other notes ❖ channel factors (nudges) situational circumstances that appear unimportant on the surgace but that can have strong effects on behavior circumstances that guide behavior in a particular direction, making it easier to follow one path rather than another ❖ construal how we interpret situations & behavior & how we make inferences people's construals of situations are mainly automatic & nonconscious ❖ automatic vs. controlled processing 2 main ways in which information is processed: automatic processing fast & nonconscious; involuntary results in implicit attitudes & beliefs controlled processing slow & conscious can override automatic responses results in explicit attitudes & beliefs ❖ interdependent vs. independent cultures interdependent cultures conception of the self as linked w/ others; attributes depend on the situation preference for collective action desire for harmonious relations within the group acceptance of hierarchy & ascribed status preference for rules that take context & particular relationships into account value group activities more independent cultures conception of the self as distinct from others; attributes are constant insistence on ability to act on one's own  10 need for individual distinctiveness preference for achieved status based on accomplishments conviction that rules governing behvior should apply to everyone value solitary activities more ❖ tight vs. loose societies tight societies strict rules; conformity demanded interdependent societies loose societies fewer rules & less strictly enforced independent societies societies become tighter when they are facing a threat - independent cultures are more persuaded by positive outcomes (promotion focus), whereas interdependent cultures are more persuaded by the avoidance of negative outcomes (prevention focus) ———————————————————————————————————————————————